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{\pntxta \dbch )}}{\*\pnseclvl5\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb \dbch (}{\pntxta \dbch )}}{\*\pnseclvl6\pnlcltr\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb \dbch (}{\pntxta \dbch )}}{\*\pnseclvl7\pnlcrm\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang{\pntxtb \dbch (}
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\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs16\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af38\hich\af38\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
\par 
\par 
\par 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\fs48 
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\par 
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\par }{\b\fs48 \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 The Biology and Ecology of White Clover (}{\b\i\fs48 \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium repens}{\b\fs48 \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  L.) in Australia 
\par }{\fs48 
\par }{\fs36 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\fs44 
\par }{
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {
\par }\pard\plain \s1\ql \fi-1134\li1134\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1134\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin1134\itap0 \b\caps\fs28\lang3081\langfe1033\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp1033 {
\par 
\par 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\fs36 \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 July 2004
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\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {
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}{\fldrslt {\cs38\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af38\dbch\af17\loch\f38 2}}}{\cs38 
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\par }}\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\b\scaps\fs27 \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Table of Contents
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s42\ql \li240\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin240\itap0 \scaps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\b\fs27 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  TOC \\o "1-3" }}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Preamble\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905403 \\h }{
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\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par }\pard\plain \s41\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\tx480\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\caps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.\tab Biology of White Clover\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905404 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s42\ql \li240\ri0\widctlpar\tx1440\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin240\itap0 \scaps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.1\tab Taxonomy and Genetics\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905405 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.2\tab Origin and Distribution\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905406 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.3\tab Uses of White Clover\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGER\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 EF _Toc65905407 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340030003700000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 4}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.4\tab Cultivation\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905408 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.5\tab Morphology\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905409 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.6\tab Reproduction\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905410 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340031003000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 10}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par }\pard\plain \s43\ql \li480\ri0\widctlpar\tx1200\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin480\itap0 \i\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.1\tab Pollination\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905411 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.2\tab Seed populatio\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905412 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.3\tab Seed dormancy\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905413 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.4\tab Seed dispersal\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905414 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.5\tab Stoloniferous regeneration\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905415 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340031003500000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 12}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par }\pard\plain \s42\ql \li240\ri0\widctlpar\tx1440\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin240\itap0 \scaps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.7\tab Pests and Diseases\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905416 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s43\ql \li480\ri0\widctlpar\tx1200\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin480\itap0 \i\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.7.1\tab Fungal diseases\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905417 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.7.2\tab Insects and other invertebrates\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905418 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.7.3\tab Viral diseases\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905419 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s41\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\tx480\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\caps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.\tab Toxicity and Allergenicity of White Clover\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905420 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s42\ql \li240\ri0\widctlpar\tx1440\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin240\itap0 \scaps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 2.1\tab Toxicity\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905421 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s43\ql \li480\ri0\widctlpar\tx1200\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin480\itap0 \i\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.1.1\tab Bloat\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905422 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.1.2\tab Cyanogenesis\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905423 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.1.3\tab Phytoestrogens\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905424 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s42\ql \li240\ri0\widctlpar\tx1440\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin240\itap0 \scaps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 2.2\tab Allergenicity\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905425 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s41\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\tx480\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\caps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 3.\tab Weediness of White Clover\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905426 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard\plain \s42\ql \li240\ri0\widctlpar\tx1440\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin240\itap0 \scaps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 3.1\tab Weediness on a Global Scale\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905427 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 3.2\tab Weediness in Australia\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905428 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340032003800000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 16}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 3.3\tab Factors influencing the Potential Weediness of \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White Clover\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905429 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340032003900000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 17}}}{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par }\pard\plain \s41\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\tx480\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\caps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 4.\tab Potential for Gene Transfer from White Clover to other Organisms\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905430 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340033003000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 17}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par }\pard\plain \s42\ql \li240\ri0\widctlpar\tx1440\tqr\tldot\tx9016\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin240\itap0 \scaps\fs20\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 4.1\tab Gene Transfer to Cultivated and Naturalised }{\i\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.repens}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905431 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340033003100000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 18}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 4.2\tab Gene \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Transfer to other }{\i\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  Species\tab }
{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905432 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340033003200000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 18}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 4.3\tab Gene Transfer to other Plants\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905433 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340033003300000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 19}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 4.4\tab Gene Transfer to other Organisms\tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  PAGEREF _Toc65905434 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000d0000005f0054006f00630036003500390030003500340033003400000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 20}}}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 }}\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\b\scaps\fs27 
\par }{\page 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190576}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905403}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Preamble{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190576}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905403}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
This document addresses the biology and ecology of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  L. Included is the origin of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 (referred to as white clover), general descriptions of its growth and agronomy, its reproductive biology, toxicity and allerge\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nicity and its general ecology. This document also addresses the potential for white clover to transfer genes via pollen and seed movement and for weediness. It should be noted that due to the large number of white clover cultivars as well as the highly h
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 terozygous nature of white clover populations which results in many genotypes, it has been necessary to generalise much of the information provided in this document and exceptions may be common. 

\par }\pard\plain \s1\ql \fi-1134\li1134\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1134\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin1134\itap0 \b\caps\fs28\lang3081\langfe1033\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp1033 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190577}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905404}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.\tab Biology of White Clover{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190577}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905404}
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905405}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190578}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.1\tab Taxonomy and Genetics{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905405}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White clover, }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  L., is one of the most agronomically important of the 250-300 species in the genus }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 belongs to the tribe Trifolieae of the subfamily Papilionoideae (also known as Faboideae) of the family Fabaceae (Australian Plant Name Index), although older taxonomic classifications placed the }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  genus in the family Leguminosae }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CIT\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
E <Refman><Cite><Author>Williams</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4237</RecNum><IDText>White clover taxonomy and biosystematics</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4237</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover taxonomy
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
and biosystematics</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>Taxonomy</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>323</Start_Page><End_Page>342</End_Page>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 M\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 DL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Williams 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. White clover cultivars are classified arbitrarily by the size of the plants, as small, intermediate and large. There are a great number of cultivars/varieties with many different adaptations and even individual culti\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
vars are composed of a heterogeneous mixture of highly heterozygous individuals }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Voisey</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>4718</RecNum><IDText>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensi\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s genes: an ecological perspective</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4718</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> genes: an ecological perspective</Title_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
imary><Authors_Primary>Voisey,C.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>White,D.W.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wigley,P.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chilcott,C.N.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>McGregor,P.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus thuringiensis</Keywords><Keywords>BACILLUS-THURINGIENSIS</Keywords><Keywords>biocontrol</Keywords><Keywords>Bt</Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds><Keywords>Bt toxin</Keywords><Keywords>chemical</Keywords><Keywords>containment</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>CULTURE</Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>ENCODES</Keywords><Keywords>endotoxin</Keywords><Keywords>Endotoxins</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>farmers</Keywords><Keywords>feeding</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords>genotype</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>IDENTIFICATION</Keywords><Keywords>immunity</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>initiation</Keywords><Keywords>Insec
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>insecticidal</Keywords><Keywords>Insects</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywords>LARVAE</Keywords><Keywords>lepidopteran</Keywords><Keywords>methods</Keywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>pest resistance</Keywords><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATION</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>toxin</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic crops</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>475</Start_Page><End_Page>481</End_Pa
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e><Periodical>Biocontrol Science and Technology</Periodical><Volume>4</Volume><Authors_Secondary>Hokkanen</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Deacon,J.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>ISSNNSSNSSN: 0958-3157</Pub_Place><Title_Series>Proceedings of an OECD 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
orkshop on ecological implications of transgenic crops containing Bt toxin genes</Title_Series><Address>Plant Molecular Genetics Laboratory, AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 f name="System">Biocontrol Science and Technology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Voisey et al. 1994)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White clover is a natural tetraploid with a chromosome number of 2n=4x=32 }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite>\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Author>Voisey</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>4718</RecNum><IDText>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis genes: an ecological perspective</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4718</Ref
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ID><Title_Primary>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> genes: an ecological perspective</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Voisey,C.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>White,D.W.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Prim
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ry>Wigley,P.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chilcott,C.N.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>McGregor,P.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>Bacillus thuringiensis</Keywords><Keywords>BACILLUS-THURINGIENSIS</Keywords><Keywords>biocontrol</Keywords><Keywords>Bt</Keywords><Keywords>Bt toxin</Keywords><Keywords>chemical</Keywords><Keywords>containment</Keywords><Keywords>control</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>CULTURE</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>ENCODES</Keywords><Keywords>endotoxin</Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds><Keywords>Endotoxins</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>farmers</Keywords><Keywords>feeding</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords>genotype</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>IDENTIFICATION</Keywords><Keywords>immunity</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>initiation</Keywords><Keywords>Insect</Keywords><Keywords>insecticidal</Keywords><Keywords>Insects</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s>LARVAE</Keywords><Keywords>lepidopteran</Keywords><Keywords>methods</Keywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>pest resistance</Keywords><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATION</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>toxin</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic crops</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>475</Start_Page><End_Page>481</End_Page><Periodical>Biocontrol Science and Technology</Periodical><Volume>4</Volume><Authors_Secondary>Hokkanen</Autho
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Deacon,J.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>ISSNNSSNSSN: 0958-3157</Pub_Place><Title_Series>Proceedings of an OECD workshop on ecological implications of transgenic crops containing Bt toxin genes</Title_Series><Address>Plant Mo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ecular Genetics Laboratory, AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Biocontrol Science and Technology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Ci
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Voisey et al. 1994)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Due to the addition of divergent genomes, inheritance in allopolyploids (which includes white clover) is disomic; ie pairing behaviour during meiosis is similar}{\super \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
to that of nonhomologous pairs of chromosomes in diploids }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Voisey</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>4718</RecNum><IDText>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis genes: an ecological perspective</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Jou
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4718</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> genes: an ecological perspective</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Voisey,C.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>White,D.W.R
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wigley,P.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chilcott,C.N.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>McGregor,P.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>as<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus thuringiensis</Keywords><Keywords>BACILLUS-THURINGIENSIS</Keywords><Keywords>biocontrol</Keywords><Keywords>Bt</Keywords><Keywords>Bt toxin</Keywords><Keywords>chemical</Keywords><Keywords>containme
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>CULTURE</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>ENCODES</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>endotoxin</Keywords><Keywords>Endotoxins</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>farmers</Keywords><Keywords>feeding</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords>genotype</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>IDENTIFICATION</Keywords><Keywords>immunity</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>initiation</Keywords><Keywords>Insect</Keywords><Keywords>insecticidal</Keywords><Keywords>Insects</Keywords><Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywords>LARVAE</Keywords><Keywords>lepidopteran</Keywords><Keywords>methods</Keywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>pest resistance</Keywords><Keywords>pests</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATION</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>toxin</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>transgenic crops</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>475</Start_Page><End_Page>481</End_Page><Periodical>Biocontrol Science and Technology</Periodical><Volume>4</Volume><A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
thors_Secondary>Hokkanen</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Deacon,J.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>ISSNNSSNSSN: 0958-3157</Pub_Place><Title_Series>Proceedings of an OECD workshop on ecological implications of transgenic crops containing Bt toxin genes
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Title_Series><Address>Plant Molecular Genetics Laboratory, AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Biocontrol Science and Technology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_Workfo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 mID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Voisey et al. 1994)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Additionally, white clover has a well-developed genetic gametophytic self-incompatibility mechanism with only a small proportion of plants in a population being quite strongly self-compat\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ible }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5201</RecNum><IDText>Reproductive development</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5201</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Reproductive devel
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
opment</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Reproduction</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>63</Start_Page><End_Page>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
23</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Thomas 1987a)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. In essence, this means that autogamous self-pollination is infrequent in white clover. The self-incompatibility system is based on the multiple oppositional alleles of the S locus which means that incompa\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
tibility occurs when the S allele in the pollen is the same type as that present in the style }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Williams</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5339</RecNum><IDText>Genetics and breeding</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5339</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Genetics and breeding</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB Internati
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 nal</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Williams 1987a)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. However, white clover also shows frequent pseudo-self-incompatibility (the breakdown of the S allele system). Therefore, self-incompatibility can be somewhat dependen\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t on genotype and environmental conditions such as temperature, resulting in a limited degree of self-pollination }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5201</RecNum><IDText>Reproductive development</IDText><MDL Re\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
f_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5201</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Reproductive development</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Reproducti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
n</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>63</Start_Page><End_Page>123</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Aut
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Thomas 1987a)}
}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Predominant outbreeding and disomic inheritance means that white clover populations are compose\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
d of a heterogeneous mixture of highly heterozygous individuals. This results in high levels of genetic variation both within and between populations }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Voisey</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>4718</RecNum><IDText>Rele\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ase of transgenic white clover plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis genes: an ecological perspective</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4718</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing <
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> genes: an ecological perspective</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Voisey,C.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>White,D.W.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wigley,P.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chilcott,C.N.</Authors_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rimary><Authors_Primary>McGregor,P.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus thuringiensis</Keywords><Keywords>BACILLUS-THUR
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
NGIENSIS</Keywords><Keywords>biocontrol</Keywords><Keywords>Bt</Keywords><Keywords>Bt toxin</Keywords><Keywords>chemical</Keywords><Keywords>containment</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>cul
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>CULTURE</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>ENCODES</Keywords><Keywords>endotoxin</Keywords><Keywords>Endotoxins</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>farmers</Keywords><Keywords>feeding</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords>genotype</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>IDENTIFICATION</Keywords><Keywords>immunity</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>initiation</Keywords><Keywords>Insect</Keywords><Keywords>insecticidal</Keywords><Keywords>Insects</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywords>LARVAE</Keywords><Keywords>lepidopteran</Keywords><Keywords>methods</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>pest resistance</Keywords><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATION</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>toxin</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic crops</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Repr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nt>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>475</Start_Page><End_Page>481</End_Page><Periodical>Biocontrol Science and Technology</Periodical><Volume>4</Volume><Authors_Secondary>Hokkanen</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Deacon,J.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>I
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 S\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
SNNSSNSSN: 0958-3157</Pub_Place><Title_Series>Proceedings of an OECD workshop on ecological implications of transgenic crops containing Bt toxin genes</Title_Series><Address>Plant Molecular Genetics Laboratory, AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Priv
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 te Bag 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Biocontrol Science and Technology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Voisey et al. 1994)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . By having high variability, white clo\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ver is more adaptable to competitive microenvironments. This is an important attribute as white clover does not naturally cross with other }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 species (See Section 4.2) and therefore cannot gain genetic variation by forming hybrids.
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905406}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Secti\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 on 1.2\tab Origin and Distribution{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190578}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905406}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
White clover originated from the Mediterranean region of Europe and was spread through Europe and Western Asia with migrating animals before recorded history. Domestication of white clover occurred 400\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 years ago in the Netherlands and migrated along with European settlers to various continents on which they are now considered naturalised }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Lane</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>4716</RecNum><IDText>A review of the i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ntroduction and use of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in Australia - significance for breeding objectives</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4716</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>A review of the introduction and use of white clo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 v\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
er (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) in Australia - significance for breeding objectives</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lane,L.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lovett,J.V.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997</D
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
te_Primary><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>beef</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>Cattle</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Keywords>Major</Keywords><Keywords>Pastur
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>REGION</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>review</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>831</Start_Pa
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e><End_Page>839</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</Periodical><Volume>37</Volume><Issue>7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 NSW Agric., Agric. Res. Advisory Station, Glen Innes, NSW 2370, Australia</Ad\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ress><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Lane et al. 1997)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . White clover has tended to naturalise in temperate regions of t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 he world with greater than 750 mm annual rainfall }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Jahufer</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>4926</RecNum><IDText>White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Pamphlet"><Ref_Type>Pamphlet</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4926</Ref_ID><Title_\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Primary>White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jahufer,Z.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Rogers,H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Rogers,M-J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2001</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 eprint><Publisher>Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria</Publisher><Misc_1>AG0705</Misc_1><ZZ_WorkformID>21</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jahufer et al. 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 It is generally accepted that European settlers accidentally introduced white clover into Australia in the late 18}{\super \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 th}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 century and deliberate sowing of Dutch and English strains of white clover occurred soon after with the establishment of pastures }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN RE\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
FMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Lane</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>4716</RecNum><IDText>A review of the introduction and use of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in Australia - significance for breeding objectives</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ype>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4716</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>A review of the introduction and use of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) in Australia - significance for breeding objectives</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lane,L.A.</Authors_Primary><Aut
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lovett,J.V.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>beef</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>Cattle</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Keywords>Major</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>REGION</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>review</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>831</Start_Page><End_Page>839</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</Periodical><Volume>37</Volume><Issue>7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>081
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 6\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 -1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 NSW Agric., Agric. Res. Advisory Station, Glen Innes, NSW 2370, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 </MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Lane et al. 1997)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. It is now considered a naturalised pasture legume in the coastal regions and tablelands of eastern Australia and has a significant presence in 7.8 million hectares of pasture in Australia }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Ref\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
man><Cite><Author>Hill</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>5702</RecNum><IDText>Australian Temperate Pastures Database</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book, Whole"><Ref_Type>Book, Whole</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5702</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Australian Temperate Pastures Datab
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
se</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hill,M.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Donald,G.E.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998</Date_Primary><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>Temperate</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Pub_Place>published as a comp
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ct disc</Pub_Place><Publisher>National Pastures Improvement Coordinating Committee/CSIRO Animal Production</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>2</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hill & Donald 1998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . The white clover zone extends from south-eastern Queensland\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 along the coast and adjacent tablelands of New South Wales and Victoria to Mt Gambier in South Australia as well as irrigated regions of south-west Western Australia and high rainfall areas of the Australian Alps and most of Tasmania }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
efman><Cite><Author>Jahufer</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>4926</RecNum><IDText>White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Pamphlet"><Ref_Type>Pamphlet</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4926</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jahufer,Z.</Autho
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s_Primary><Authors_Primary>Rogers,H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Rogers,M-J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2001</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Publisher>Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Vic
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 oria</Publisher><Misc_1>AG0705</Misc_1><ZZ_WorkformID>21</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jahufer et al. 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. The maps at Figure 1 (A, B) shows the current distribution of white clover in Australia and Figure 2 (A, B) shows the areas of Australia\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  that white clover could potentially inhabit }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hill</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>5702</RecNum><IDText>Australian Temperate Pastures Database</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book, Whole"><Ref_Type>Book, Whole</Ref_Type><Ref
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_ID>5702</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Australian Temperate Pastures Database</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hill,M.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Donald,G.E.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998</Date_Primary><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>Temperat
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Pub_Place>published as a compact disc</Pub_Place><Publisher>National Pastures Improvement Coordinating Committee/CSIRO Animal Production</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>2</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hill & Donald 1\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Many other }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 species are also widely distributed throughout temperate and subtropical parts of Australia including species commonly sown in pastures such as subterranean clover (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. subterraneum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
), arrowleaf clover (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.\~vesiculosum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), red clov\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 er (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. pratense}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), persian clover (}{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. resupinatum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) and strawberry clover (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. fragiferum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture and Grassland Society of NSW Inc</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>5321</RecNum><IDText>Pasture grass, legume an\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
d herb varieties used in NSW 2002-2003</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5321</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Pasture grass, legume and herb varieties used in NSW 2002-2003</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Agriculture and Grassla
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
d Society of NSW Inc</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2001</Date_Primary><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>variety</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>36</End_Page><Pub_Place>Dubbo,</Pub_Place><Publisher>NSW Agricultu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (NSW Agriculture and Grassland Society of NSW Inc 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 

\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190579}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905407}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.3\tab Uses of White Clover{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190579}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905407}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
White clover is used in a mixed sward with gra\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
sses. It is used for grazing, pasture hay and ground cover in horticultural situations. It is highly important in the dairy, meat and wool industries, significantly improving yields of these products }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Ayres</Author><\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Year>2000</Year><RecNum>5306</RecNum><IDText>The contribution of pasture research for animal production from legume-based pastures in temperate Australia</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5306</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The c
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ntribution of pasture research for animal production from legume-based pastures in temperate Australia</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Davies,H.L.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Farquharson,R.J.</Authors_Pri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ary><Authors_Primary>Murison,R.D.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>analysis</Keywords><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>ASSOCIATION</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>COMPLEX</Keywords><Keywords>CONSEQUENCES</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Keywords>livestock</Keywords><Keywords>Major</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTE
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 N\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
CE</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>4</End_Page><Periodical>Asian Australasian Journal of Animal Sc
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ences</Periodical><Volume>13 (suppl. 2000B)</Volume><Title_Series>Animal production for a consuming world. Vol. B. Proceedings of the 9th Congress of the Asian-Australasian Association of Animal Production Societies and 23rd Biennial Conference of the Aus
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ralian Society of Animal Production. 3-7 July</Title_Series><Authors_Series>Stone</Authors_Series><Address>NSW Agriculture, Agricultural Research and Advisory Station, PMB, Glen Innes, NSW 2370, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Asian Au
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 tralasian Journal of Animal Sciences</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Ayres et al. 2000)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . For example, it has been estimated that in Victoria white clover is worth $A 267 million to the diary industry alone }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADD\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
IN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Mason</Author><Year>1993</Year><RecNum>4730</RecNum><IDText>Current role, potential and limitations to white clover in the dairy industry</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>47
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 3\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
0</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Current role, potential and limitations to white clover in the dairy industry</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Mason,W</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1993</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords>milk</Keywords><Keywords>Potential</Keywords><Keywords>dairy</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>29</Start_Page><End_Page>37</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover. A key to increasing milk yields</Title_Secondary><Issue>4</Issue><Pub_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 lace>Melbourne</Pub_Place><Publisher>Dairy Research and Development Corporation</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Mason 1993)
}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and in some areas in New Zealand, the value of white clover has been estimated to be worth $NZ \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 380-435 per hectare per year on an average diary farm }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>5191</RecNum><IDText>White Clover - How Much and How to Get it</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Ref_ID>5191</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White Clover - How Much and How to Get it</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,S.L</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998</Date_Primary><Keywords>benefits</Keywords><Keywords>companion species</Keywords><Keywords>dairy</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>73</Start_Page><End_Page>79</End_Page><Web_URL><u>http://www.dexcel.co.nz/pdf_files/rfc_1998/rfc98_har.pdf</u></Web_URL><Z
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Z\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. The presence of white clover in pastures allows a many fold increase of stocking rates, eg. greater than 10 sheep per hectare compared to 1.8 sheep per hectare on native pastures of Aust\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ralia }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Cotsell</Author><Year>1959</Year><RecNum>5389</RecNum><IDText>The utilisation of sown pastures in merino breeding on the granite soils of Eastern New England, New South Wales</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><R
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ef_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5389</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The utilisation of sown pastures in merino breeding on the granite soils of Eastern New England, New South Wales</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Cotsell,J.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>E
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
gar,G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1959=December</Date_Primary><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>SOILS</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>515</Start_Page><End_Page>523</End_Page><Pe
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
iodical>The Australian Veterinary Journal</Periodical><Volume>35</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">The Australian Veterinary Journal</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Cotsell & Edgar 1959)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . A density of gr\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 eater than 25% ground cover is commonly sought by pastoralists }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Garrett</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>4732</RecNum><IDText>White clover expressing the coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus: field trial issues</IDTe\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
xt><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4732</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover expressing the coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus: field trial issues</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Garrett,R.G.</Autho
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chu,P.W.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>COAT PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>MOSAIC-VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>FIEL
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 D\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic crops</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>Alfalfa mosaic virus</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>125</Start_Page><En
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Page>136</End_Page><Periodical>Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops: Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations</Periodical><Authors_Secondary>McLean,G.D.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Waterhouse,P.M.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Evans,G.</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
uthors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Gibbs,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Canberra</Pub_Place><Publisher>Bureau of Resource Sciences</Publisher><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops: Risk, Benefit and Trade Consideratio
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Garrett & Chu 1997)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 There are many advantages to using white clover in pastures. It has a high nutritive value because it supplies a rich source of proteins and minerals, an\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
d has high voluntary intake by grazing animals thereby making an important contribution to feed supply throughout the year. Furthermore, it is adaptable to a wide range of soil and environmental conditions and combines well with many perennial grasses. Ad
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 itionally, it has dual regenerative capabilities via stolons and seed bank (discussed in Section 1.5 below) making it suitable for grazing }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Frame</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>4924</RecNum><IDText>Trifolium repens\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 L.</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4924</Ref_ID><Title_Primary><i>Trifolium repens</i> L.</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Frame,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2003</Date_Primary><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Publisher>FA
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 O\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Publisher><Web_URL><u>http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000350.htm</u></Web_URL><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>4925</RecNum><IDText>White clover</IDText><MDL Ref
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4925</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ge>1</Start_Page><End_Page>4</End_Page><Volume>DPI-270</Volume><Publisher>NSW Agriculture</Publisher><Title_Series>Agnote</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Frame 2003; NSW Agriculture 2002b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
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re of white clover in pastures is its nitrogen fixing ability, a result of the symbiotic relationship between white clover and the bacterium }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Rhizobium trifolii}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
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\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \fi567\li567\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin567\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Figure 1
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Distribution of white clover in Australian pastures. Maps from the Australian Temperate Pastures Database.
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{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1152\shptop-804\shpright6300\shpbottom6783\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr1\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt0\shpz2\shplid1029{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 75}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
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ss v1 copy.jpg}}{\sp{\sn pibFlags}{\sv 14}}{\sp{\sn fLine}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 0}}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt8194\dppolygon\dppolycount4\dpptx0\dppty0\dpptx0\dppty7587\dpptx5148\dppty7587
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}{\fldrslt {}}}{
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \fi567\li567\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin567\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Figure 2. Potential distribution of white clover in Australian pastures. Maps from the Australian Temperate Pastures Database.
\par }\pard \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {
\par \sect }\sectd \marglsxn1440\margrsxn1440\margtsxn1440\margbsxn1440\binfsxn7\binsxn7\psz9\sbkodd\linex0\endnhere\sectdefaultcl \pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Environmental factors such as soil pH, light, defoliation, temperature, soil nutrient status and water stress can influence }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Rhizobium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  infection, nodulation, and nitrogen fixation processes, as well as host growth and nitrogen demand }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  AD\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
DIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Crush</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5199</RecNum><IDText>Nitrogen fixation</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5199</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Nitrogen fixation</Title_Primary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Authors_Primary>Crush,J.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>Nitrogen</Keywords><Keywords>Nitrogen Fixation</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>185</Start_Page><End_Page>201</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Ti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Crush 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Nitrogen fixation improves the nitrogen content of soil lessening, the need for fertilisers. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Rhizobium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 infection is essential for white clover establishment on nitrogen-deficient soils. 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 However, there are some disadvantages to growing white clover. Whi\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
te clover has variable persistence and yield from year to year due to poor drought and heat tolerance, and therefore good summer rainfall or irrigation is required. Soils with medium to high fertility containing phosphorus and sulphur are needed for good 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ields and careful grazing management is required. Although white clover improves the nitrogen content of soil, the nitrogen produced is less predictable than fertiliser application }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Frame</Author><Year>2003</Year><Re\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
cNum>4924</RecNum><IDText>Trifolium repens L.</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4924</Ref_ID><Title_Primary><i>Trifolium repens</i> L.</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Frame,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2003</Date_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Publisher>FAO</Publisher><Web_URL><u>http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000350.htm</u></Web_URL><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>4925</Re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Num><IDText>White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4925</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>4</End_Page><Volume>DPI-270</Volume><Publisher>NSW Agriculture</Publisher><Title_Series>Agnote</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Frame 2003; NSW Agricu\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 lture 2002b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Additionally, white clover is adversely affected by several pests and diseases (See Section 1.6) and contains some toxic and anti-nutritional compounds (See Section 2.1).
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190580}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905408}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.4\tab Cultivation{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190580}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905408}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
As mentioned above, white clover is predominantly grown in conjunction with grasses. The type of companion grasses commonly used include perennial ryegrass, phalaris, cocksfoot, fescue, paspalum, Italian ryegrass and kikuyu, although exact combinations
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  are dependent on the area in Australia in which the pasture is grown }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>4925</RecNum><IDText>White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_ID>4925</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>4</End_Page><Volu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e>DPI-270</Volume><Publisher>NSW Agriculture</Publisher><Title_Series>Agnote</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(NSW Agriculture 2002b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White clover requires particular soil conditions to ensure good seedling establish\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ment and to maintain high production. White clover performs well on soils with medium to high fertility containing good levels of phosphorus, sulphur and potassium. It prefers soils that have a pH above 4.5 and have good water-holding capacity but are wel
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  draining }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Frame</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>4924</RecNum><IDText>Trifolium repens L.</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4924</Ref_ID><Title_Primary><i>Trifolium repens</i> L.</Tit
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le_Primary><Authors_Primary>Frame,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2003</Date_Primary><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Publisher>FAO</Publisher><Web_URL><u>http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000350.htm</u></Web_URL><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>4925</RecNum><IDText>White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4925</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Ag
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
iculture</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>4</End_Page><Volume>DPI-270</Volume><Publisher>NSW Agriculture</Publisher><Title_Series>Agnote</Title
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Series><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Frame 2003; NSW Agriculture 2002b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. White clover pastures often require fertilisers to maintain productivity. The type of white clover cultivars planted depends on the final use such as past\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ure or seed production, and environmental conditions such as pest and disease pressures, soil type and temperature.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White clover can be established a number of ways as a pasture component. White clover-grass mixtures can be seeded onto freshly prepared soi\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
l to an optimal depth of 10-12 mm. Alternatively, white clover can be seeded into existing grass pastures by either surface sowing, direct drilling (sod seeding) or partial cultivation }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Frame</Author><Year>2003</Year\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><RecNum>4924</RecNum><IDText>Trifolium repens L.</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4924</Ref_ID><Title_Primary><i>Trifolium repens</i> L.</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Frame,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2003</Date_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 imary><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Publisher>FAO</Publisher><Web_URL><u>http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000350.htm</u></Web_URL><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Frame 2003)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Such oversowing into grass swards is impor\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
tant if the white clover population has declined due to drought or overgrazing. Seed germination occurs in winter and spring.
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190581}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905409}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.5\tab Morphology{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190581}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905409}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
White clover is a prostrate legume and tends to be a short-\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 lived perennial but can behave as an annual under moisture stressed conditions }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hutchinson</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>4912</RecNum><IDText>Effects of rainfall, moisture stress, and stocking rate on the persiste\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nce of white clover over 30 years</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4912</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Effects of rainfall, moisture stress, and stocking rate on the persistence of white clover over 30 years</Title_Primary><Auth
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rs_Primary>Hutchinson,K.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>King,K.L.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wilkinson,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>competition</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>LONG-TERM</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>nature</Keywords><Keywords>Nitrogen</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PATTERNS</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Rates</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>Water</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Repri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1039</Start_Page><End_Page>1047</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture</Periodical><Volume>35</Volume><Issue>7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>CSIRO Div. Animal Prod., Armidale, 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 N\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 SW 2350, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hutchinson et al. 1995)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 The basic structural component of a mature wh\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ite clover plant is the stolon. The stolon consists of a series of internodes separated by nodes. Each node bears a trifoliolate leaf, two root primordia and, during vegetative growth, an axillary bud which is capable of growing into a lateral stolon. If 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 he node comes into contact with moist soil, adventitious roots may form from the root primordia closest to the ground }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4709</RecNum><IDText>The structure of the mature plant</I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
DText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4709</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The structure of the mature plant</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>29</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 J\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Thomas 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . A 10-week-old seedling consists of a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 central primary axis of stem and root from which several secondary stolons can grow forming a branched network radiating from the initial seedling. When the primary root dies off, the lateral stolons are nutritionally supported by the adventitious roots 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 nd become independent plants. The development and establishment of new stolons from the tips of the plant is continuous and older tissue gradually dies off }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4709</RecNum><IDTex\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t>The structure of the mature plant</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4709</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The structure of the mature plant</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>29</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Thomas 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Leaf size is highly dependent on type and cultivar of white clover as well as environment, ranging from very small (leaflets less than 1 cm long) in prostrate short petioled types to large (leaflets more than 2 cm) in the more erect, longer petioled typ
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
es. The trifoliate leaves on stolons are arranged alternately and tend to be attached to the side of the stem relative to the surface of the ground. Leaflets are generally elliptical, egg-shaped or heart-shaped with minute serrate margins and are uniforml
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  green or patterned with whitish V-shaped marks and/or purplish colourations }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4709</RecNum><IDText>The structure of the mature plant</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_T\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ype>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4709</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The structure of the mature plant</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>29</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 W\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 illiams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Thomas 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White clover flowers t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
hrough the spring and summer. Inflorescences are globular racemes and are supported by long peduncles. Each inflorescence consists of 20-40 florets which are white and commonly tinged with pink. Up to 3-4 seeds per pod can be produced after pollination. T
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e seeds are smooth, heart-shaped and range in colour from bright yellow to yellowish brown, and darken with age }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Frame</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>4924</RecNum><IDText>Trifolium repens L.</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4924</Ref_ID><Title_Primary><i>Trifolium repens</i> L.</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Frame,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2003</Date_Primary><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Publisher>FAO</Publisher><Web_URL><u>ht
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 p://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000350.htm</u></Web_URL><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Frame 2003)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190582}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905410}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.6\tab Reproduction{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190582}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905410}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
White clover possesses two complementary \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 mechanisms of reproduction: regeneration by seedling recruitment and vegetative perennation through the stolon system }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Lane</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>4717</RecNum><IDText>The pastoral significance, adaptive ch\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
aracteristics, and grazing value of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4717</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The pastoral significance, adaptive chara
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
teristics, and grazing value of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lane,L.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lovett,J.V.</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
uthors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>biomass</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>Cattle</Keywords><Keywords>c
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
mpetition</Keywords><Keywords>CONSERVATION</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Keywords>Major</Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PERFORMANCE</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>white
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1033</Start_Page><End_Page>1046</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</Periodical><Volume>40</Volume><Issue>7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 Agricu\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
tural Research and Advisory Station, NSW Agriculture, Glen Innes, NSW, 2370: leah.lane@agric.nsw.gov.au, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Lane et al. 2000)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. The primary adoption of either one of these mechanisms depends on the influence of the environment on stolon survival. There is an inverse relationship between stolon branching (and hence persistence)\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 and flowering vigour. Therefore, profusely flowering white clover tend to have less stolons and have the potential to produce a large number of seeds }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5201</RecNum><IDText>Rep\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
roductive development</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5201</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Reproductive development</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
plant</Keywords><Keywords>Reproduction</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>63</Start_Page><End_Page>123</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Thomas 1987a)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190584}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905411}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.1\tab Pollination{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190584}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905411}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
As white clover is predominantly self-incompatible (see Section 1.1 for details), cross}{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 45 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pollination is essential for significant seed set. Because white clover pollen is not easily dispersed by wind and any airborne po\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
llen does not result in effective pollination, insect pollinators are normally required to transfer pollen between individual clover plants. The most important natural pollinating agents of white clover are bees. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Diptera}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (flies) and }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Lepidoptera}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (butterflie\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s and moths) may visit flowers but are not effective pollinators }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book C\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
hapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . In Australia, the honey bee (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Apis mellifera}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) is the predominant pollinator of white clover. In the absence of \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pollinators, seed set is very low with reports of 0 to 2.7 seeds produced per flower head. 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Self-pollen is always present by the time a pollinator visits the flower (possibly up to 50% saturation of the stigma) but self-incompatibility normally prevents se\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
lf-fertilisation. Additionally, self-pollen that has not been deposited by bees may have inadequate contact with the stigma for pollen germination and fertilisation to occur. Seed set can be increased by artificially pollinating florets by hand pollinatio
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  or rubbing the flower heads together to promote some selfing, as mechanical damage has been shown to be important in stimulating pollen germination }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Popul\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ation dynamics and competition</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Dat
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Seconda
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Harris 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . There is evidence that bee\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s improve the efficiency of pollen deposits and several visits by bees to a floret maximises pollen tube access to ovules (over 90%) }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Rodet</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>5296</RecNum><IDText>Status of self-pollen \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
in bee pollination efficiency of white clover (Trifolium repens L.)</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5296</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Status of self-pollen in bee pollination efficiency of white clover (<i>Trifolium</i> <i>re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 p\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ens</i> L.)</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Rodet,G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Vaissiere,B.E.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Brevault,T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Torre-Grossa,J.P.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998</Date_Primary><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>anthesis</Keywords><Keywords>bee</Keywords><Keywords>bees</Keywords><Keywords>cross pollination</Keywords><Keywords>EFFICIENCY</Keywords><Keywords>flower</Keywords><Keywords>flowers</Keywords><Keywords>France</Keywords><Keywords>hermaphrodite</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>Insect</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollen deposition</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>selfing</Keywords><Keywords>SITE</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>white clove
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>93</Start_Page><End_Page>99</End_Page><Periodical>Oecologia.</Periodical><Volume>114</Volume><Issue>1</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0029-8549</ISSN_ISBN><Address>IN
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
A, Equipe de recherche sur la pollinisation entomophile, Station de zoologie et d&apos;apidologie, Domaine Saint-Paul, Site Agropare, F-84914 Avignon cedex 9, France</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Oecologia.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_Wo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 kformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Rodet et al. 1998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. In a report where inflorescences had an average of 54.9 florets, an average of 22.4 florets contained seeds, which represented 86% of florets that had been probed by a bee }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Michaelson-Yeates</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>5291</RecNum><IDText>The use of isoenzyme markers to determine pollen flow and seed paternity mediated by Apis mellifera and Bombus spp. in Trifolium repens, a self-incompatibl
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 plant species</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5291</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The use of isoenzyme markers to determine pollen flow and seed paternity mediated by <i>Apis mellifera</i> and <i>Bombus</i> spp. in <i>Trifoliu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 repens</i>, a self-incompatible plant species</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Michaelson-Yeates,T.P.T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,I.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Carreck,N.L.</Authors
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Primary><Authors_Primary>Simpkins,J.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>Apis mellifera</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>bee</Keywords><Keywords>bees</Keywords><Keywords>Bombus</Keywords><Keywords>bumble bee</Keywords><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>DONOR</Keywords><Keywords>FLOW</Keywords><Keywords>foraging</Keywords><Keywords>foraging behaviour</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene flow</Keywords><Keywords>Genetic Markers</Keywords><Keywords>Honey</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>honey bees</Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>57</Start_Page><End_Page>62</End_Page>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Periodical>Journal of Apicultural Research</Periodical><Volume>36</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0021-8839.</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Plas Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3EB, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalFull
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <f name="System">Journal of Apicultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Michaelson-Yeates et al. 1997)}}}
{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Although honey bees can travel up to 10 kilometres and distances of 2.5 kilometres are regularly \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 recorded }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Beekman</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>5489</RecNum><IDText>Long-range foraging by the honey-bee, Apis mellifera L.</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5489</Ref_ID><Title_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Primary>Long-range foraging by the honey-bee,<i> Apis mellifera</i> L.</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Beekman,M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ratnieks,F.L.W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000</Date_Primary><Keywords>foraging</Keywords><Keywords>Ap
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s mellifera</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>490</Start_Page><End_Page>496</End_Page><Periodical>Functional Ecology</Periodical><Volume>14</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Functional Ecology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 W\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 orkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Beekman & Ratnieks 2000)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
, when there is abundant nectar source, the forage area is a lot smaller }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Williams</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>1660</RecNum><IDText>Bee-mediated pollen
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 and gene flow from GM plants</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>1660</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Bee-mediated pollen and gene flow from GM plants</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,I.H.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>200
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Date_Primary><Keywords>bumble bee</Keywords><Keywords>gene flow</Keywords><Keywords>honey bees</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>risk assessment</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>25</Start_Page><End_Page>33</End_Page><Per
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
odical>Acta Horticulturae</Periodical><Volume>561</Volume><Address>IACR - Rothamsted, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Harpenden, Hertfordshire AL5 2JQ, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Acta Horticulturae</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_Workfo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 mID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Williams 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. In a study on honey bee foraging on white clover, 60.9% of flower heads visited were within 10 cm of the previous head visited and only 13.6% were beyond 25 m }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Author>Weaver</Author><Year>1965</Year><RecNum>5317</RecNum><IDText>Foraging behavior of honeybees on white clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5317</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Foraging behavior of honeybees on white clov
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
r</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Weaver,N.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1965</Date_Primary><Keywords>foraging</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>231</Start_Page><End_Page>240</End_Page><Periodical>Insectes 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 S\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ociaux</Periodical><Volume>12</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Insectes Sociaux</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Weaver 1965)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . It has been reported that when a bee visits a pollen donor, that particular \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pollen is deposited on the next 15 to 20 inflorescences and then sporadically up to the 50}{\super \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 th}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  inflorescence }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Marshall</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>2860</RecNum><IDText>How busy are bees - modelling the pollination\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 of clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>2860</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>How busy are bees - modelling the pollination of clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Michaelson-Yeate
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
,T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,I.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</Date_Primary><Keywords>bees</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>18</Start_Page><End_Page>21</End_Page><Publisher>IGER Innova
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ions</Publisher><Availability>Kelley Whitaker</Availability><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Marshall et al. 1999)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Bees have been reported to visit an average of 2.5-3.5 white clover florets per inflorescence }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Refman><Cite><Author>Michaelson-Yeates</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>5291</RecNum><IDText>The use of isoenzyme markers to determine pollen flow and seed paternity mediated by Apis mellifera and Bombus spp. in Trifolium repens, a self-incompatible plant
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
species</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5291</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The use of isoenzyme markers to determine pollen flow and seed paternity mediated by <i>Apis mellifera</i> and <i>Bombus</i> spp. in <i>Trifolium repen
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</i>, a self-incompatible plant species</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Michaelson-Yeates,T.P.T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,I.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Carreck,N.L.</Authors_Primar
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Authors_Primary>Simpkins,J.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>Apis mellifera</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>bee</Keywords><Keywords>bees</Keywords><Keywords>Bombus</Keywords><Keywords>bumble bee</Keywords><Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>DONOR</Keywords><Keywords>FLOW</Keywords><Keywords>foraging</Keywords><Keywords>foraging behaviour</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene flow</Keywords><Keywords>Genetic Markers</Keywords><Keywords>Honey</Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Keywords>honey bees</Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>57</Start_Page><End_Page>62</End_Page><Period
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
cal>Journal of Apicultural Research</Periodical><Volume>36</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0021-8839.</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Plas Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3EB, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f nam
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
="System">Journal of Apicultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Weaver</Author><Year>1965</Year><RecNum>5317</RecNum><IDText>Foraging behavior of honeybees on white clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Jou
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5317</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Foraging behavior of honeybees on white clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Weaver,N.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1965</Date_Primary><Keywords>foraging</Keywords><Keywords>white cl
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ver</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>231</Start_Page><End_Page>240</End_Page><Periodical>Insectes Sociaux</Periodical><Volume>12</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Insectes Sociaux</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Michaelson-Yeates et al. 1997; Weaver 1965)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 and generally the pollen most effective in fertilisation comes from the last pollen donor visited by the bee }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Michaelson-Yeates</Author><Year>1997</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Year><RecNum>5291</RecNum><IDText>The use of isoenzyme markers to determine pollen flow and seed paternity mediated by Apis mellifera and Bombus spp. in Trifolium repens, a self-incompatible plant species</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5291</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The use of isoenzyme markers to determine pollen flow and seed paternity mediated by <i>Apis mellifera</i> and <i>Bombus</i> spp. in <i>Trifolium repens</i>, a self-incompatible plant species</Title_Primary><Au
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
hors_Primary>Michaelson-Yeates,T.P.T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,I.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Carreck,N.L.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Simpkins,J.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Pri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>Apis mellifera</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>bee</Keywords><Keywords>bees</Keywords><Keywords>Bombus</Keywords><Keywords>bumble bee</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>DONOR</Keywords><Keywords>FL
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 O\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
W</Keywords><Keywords>foraging</Keywords><Keywords>foraging behaviour</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene flow</Keywords><Keywords>Genetic Markers</Keywords><Keywords>Honey</Keywords><Keywords>honey bees</Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>57</Start_Page><End_Page>62</End_Page><Periodical>Journal of Apicultural Research</Periodical><Volume>36
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0021-8839.</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Plas Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3EB, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Journal of Apicultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalF
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ll><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Michaelson-Yeates et al. 1997)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 There are a number of reports of outcrossing rates for white clover in the scientific literature. Any differences are likely to be due to the cultivars used, exper\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
imental design, differences in the size of the pollen source and pollen sink and their spatial arrangement, local topology and environmental conditions }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Eastham</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>1269</RecNum><IDText>G\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
enetically modified organisms (GMOs):  The significance of gene flow through pollen transfer</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>1269</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Genetically modified organisms (GMOs):  The significance of gene flo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 through pollen transfer</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Eastham,K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Sweet,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>genetically modified</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified organisms</Keywords><K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords>genetically modified organism</Keywords><Keywords>ORGANISMS</Keywords><Keywords>GMO</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene flow</Keywords><Keywords>FLOW</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>75</End_Page><Volume>Environmental issue report No. 28</Volume><Pub_Place>Copenhagen, Denmark, http://reports.eea.eu.int/environmental_issue_report_2002_28/
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n</Pub_Place><Publisher>European Environment Agency (EEA)</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Eastham & Sweet 2002)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Clifford et al. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Clifford</Author><Year>1996</Year><RecNum>4713</\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
RecNum><IDText>The intensifying requirements for white clover cultivar change</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4713</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The intensifying requirements for white clover cultiv
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
r change</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Clifford,P.T.P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Sparks,G.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1996</Date_Primary><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>distance</Keywords><Keywords>growers</Keywords><Keywords>isolation</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollen deposition</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
File</Reprint><Start_Page>19</Start_Page><End_Page>24</End_Page><Pub_Place>Christchurch</Pub_Place><Publisher>Agronomy Society of New Zealand</Publisher><Title_Series>White clover: New Zealand&apos;s competitive edge. Joint symposium</Title_Series><Addres
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >AgResearch, PO Box 60, Lincoln, Christchurch, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Clifford et al. 1996)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  studied gene flow in white clover over two seasons, reporting 0.7% and 1.3% of seed was produced by cross-p\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ollination at 2 metres from a pollen source. At 10 metres, these figures had dropped to 0.02% and 0.04%. Another study on white clover similarly reported outcrossing rates of 0.68% and 0.02% at two and ten metres, respectively }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst 
{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><C\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ite><Author>Woodfield</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>4727</RecNum><IDText>Gene flow and estimated isolation requirements for transgenic white clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4727</Re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_ID><Title_Primary>Gene flow and estimated isolation requirements for transgenic white clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Clifford,P.T.P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Baird,I.J.</Authors_Primary><A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
thors_Primary>Cousins,G.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene flow</Keywords><Keywords>FLOW</Keywords><Keywords>isolation</Keywords><Keywords>isolation requirement</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>biosafety</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified plants</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>MICROORGANISMS</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>509</Start_Page><End_Page>514</End_Page><Authors_Secondary>Jones,D.D.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Oaklan
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Pub_Place><Publisher>The University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resourses</Publisher><Title_Series>Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on the Biosafety Results of Field Tests of Genetically Modified Plants and Microorga
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 isms</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Woodfield et al. 1995)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. These authors concluded that an isolation distance of 100 metres are adequate to minimise gene flow. When separate plots of white clover were grown variou\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s distances apart, pollen transfer between the plots were reported to be high over distances less than one metre but low when distances between pollen sources were greater than two metres }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Marshall</Author><Year>1999\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Year><RecNum>2860</RecNum><IDText>How busy are bees - modelling the pollination of clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>2860</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>How busy are bees - modelling the pollination of clover</Title_Primar
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Michaelson-Yeates,T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,I.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</Date_Primary><Keywords>bees</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Reprint>In File<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Reprint><Start_Page>18</Start_Page><End_Page>21</End_Page><Publisher>IGER Innovations</Publisher><Availability>Kelley Whitaker</Availability><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Marshall et al. 1999)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Pollen viability is very high with a pollen germination test indicating 98.4% viability of freshly collected pollen (information supplied by applicant). Long term viability of white clover pollen when carried by bees is unknown.
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190585}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905412}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .2\tab Seed {\*\bkmkend _Toc64190585}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905412}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 production 
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Seed development from pollination to full ripening takes 26 }{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 177 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 5 days. Seed first starts becoming viable at about day 10 with approximately 90% of seed viable by day 15. The seed is s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 hed once maturity is reached }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
D><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Repr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nt>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ublisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Under permanent pasture, seeds are confined largely to the top five centimetres of soil }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hyde</Author><Yea\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
r>1953</Year><RecNum>5315</RecNum><IDText>Dormant seeds of clovers and other legumes in agricultural soils</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5315</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Dormant seeds of clovers and other legumes in agricu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
tural soils</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hyde,E.O.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Suckling,F.E.T.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1953</Date_Primary><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>SOILS</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>374</Start_Page><End_Page>385</End_Page><Periodical>New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology</Periodical><Volume>A34</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology</f></Z
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Z\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hyde & Suckling 1953)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Components that affect seed yield include the number of flower heads per unit area, the number of florets per flower head, number of seeds per floret, and the we\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ight of ripe seeds. Each of these components are dependent on environmental and developmental factors and genotype }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Marshall</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>5293</RecNum><IDText>Seasonal variation in the seed yield \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
components of white clover (Trifolium repens)</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5293</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Seasonal variation in the seed yield components of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i>)</Title_Primary><Authors
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Primary>Marshall,A.H.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>&amp;</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>inflorescences</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>variety</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>yield-components</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>97</Start_Page><End_Page>105</End_Page><P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
riodical>Plant Varieties and Seeds</Periodical><Volume>7</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0952-3863</ISSN_ISBN><Address>AFRC Institute of Grassland &amp; Environmental Research, Plas Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3EB, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
name="System">Plant Varieties and Seeds</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5201</RecNum><IDText>Reproductive development</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Boo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 k\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5201</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Reproductive development</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Reproduction</Keywords><Keywords>white clover<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>63</Start_Page><End_Page>123</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingfor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 </Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Marshall 1994; Thomas 1987a)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . For example, cold temperatures at flowering increase pollen sterility, high temperatures increase bee foraging and h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ence increase pollination, increased ovule age at pollination decreases seed set, long day length decreases flower initiation and close grazing during spring minimises stolon shading and can lead to high seed production }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Au\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
thor>Jakobsen</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>5283</RecNum><IDText>Influence of temperature and ageing of ovules and pollen on reproductive success in Trifolium repens L</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5283</Ref_ID><Ti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le_Primary>Influence of temperature and ageing of ovules and pollen on reproductive success in <i>Trifolium repens</i> L</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jakobsen,H.B.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Martens,H.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
imary><Keywords>anthesis</Keywords><Keywords>CELL</Keywords><Keywords>CELLS</Keywords><Keywords>clone</Keywords><Keywords>CLONES</Keywords><Keywords>correlation</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>Female</Keywords><Keywords>Flowering</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>In Vitro</Keywords><Keywords>IN-VITRO</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywords>Male</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>percentage
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>physiology</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Plant Physiology</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>reproductive success</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>seed set</Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s><Keywords>temperature</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>veterinary</Keywords><Keywords>VITRO</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>493</Start_Page><End_Page>501</End_Page><Periodical>Annals of Botany</Periodical><Volume>74</Vol
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
me><Issue>5</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0305-7364</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Department of Plant Biology, Plant Physiology and Anatomy Laboratory, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f n
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
me="System">Annals of Botany</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5201</RecNum><IDText>Reproductive development</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ef_Type><Ref_ID>5201</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Reproductive development</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Reproduction</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>63</Start_Page><End_Page>123</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Plac
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jakobsen & Martens 1994; Thomas 1987a)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . In general, seed set decreases with decreasing temperatures. Interestingly, seed set is not influenced by pollen age \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (up to 5 days after anthesis) }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Jakobsen</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>5283</RecNum><IDText>Influence of temperature and ageing of ovules and pollen on reproductive success in Trifolium repens L</IDText><MDL Ref_Ty
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pe="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5283</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Influence of temperature and ageing of ovules and pollen on reproductive success in <i>Trifolium repens</i> L</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jakobsen,H.B.</Authors_Primary><Auth
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rs_Primary>Martens,H.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>anthesis</Keywords><Keywords>CELL</Keywords><Keywords>CELLS</Keywords><Keywords>clone</Keywords><Keywords>CLONES</Keywords><Keywords>correlation</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONM
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 E\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
NT</Keywords><Keywords>Female</Keywords><Keywords>Flowering</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>In Vitro</Keywords><Keywords>IN-VITRO</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>Male</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>percentage</Keywords><Keywords>physiology</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Plant Physiology</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>reproductive suc
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ess</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>seed set</Keywords><Keywords>temperature</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>veterinary</Keywords><Keywords>VITRO</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>493</Start_Page><End_Page>501<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
End_Page><Periodical>Annals of Botany</Periodical><Volume>74</Volume><Issue>5</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0305-7364</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Department of Plant Biology, Plant Physiology and Anatomy Laboratory, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Thorvaldsensv
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 j 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Annals of Botany</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jakobsen & Martens 1994)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and it appears that failure of high seed yield is not a re\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 sult of inadequate pollination or the self-incompatibility system }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Cowan</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>4911</RecNum><IDText>Effect of pollen competition and stigmatic receptivity on seed set in white clover (Trifo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
lium repens L.)</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4911</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Effect of pollen competition and stigmatic receptivity on seed set in white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.)</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Cowan,A.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Michaelson-Yeates,T.P.T.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000</Date_Primary><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>DONOR</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>LEAF</Keywords><Keywords>LINE</Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>seed set</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>temperature</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>37</Start_Page><End_Page>42</End_Page><Periodical>Sexual.Plant Reproduction.</Periodica
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ><Volume>13</Volume><Issue>1</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0934-0882</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Plas Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, SY23 3EB, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Sexual.Plant Reproduct\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
on.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Cowan et al. 2000)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190586}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905413}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.3\tab Seed dormancy{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190586}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905413}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Mature white clover seed can be either 
\hich\f0 \lquote \loch\f0 soft\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0  (ie. permeable to water and able t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o germinate readily) or \hich\f0 \lquote \loch\f0 hard\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0 
 (impermeable to water leading to delayed germination); the ratio is dependent on the conditions under which they ripen. If the seed ripens under dry conditions then nearly all seed is in the dormant hard condition whereas un\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 er moist conditions the seed will immediately be germinable }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapte\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
r</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . One study which ripened seed under five different relative humidities found that seed ripened at 70% relative humid\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ity were all soft whereas at 30% relative humidity most were hard indicating a high negative correlation between moisture content of the seed and duration of impermeability }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hyde</Author><Year>1954</Year><RecNum>5314\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</RecNum><IDText>The function of the hilum in some Papilionaceae in relation to the ripening of the seed and the permeability of the testa</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5314</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The function of the 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ilum in some <i>Papilionaceae</i> in relation to the ripening of the seed and the permeability of the testa</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hyde,E.O.C.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1954</Date_Primary><Keywords>ripening</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Keywords>testa</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>241</Start_Page><End_Page>250</End_Page><Periodical>Annuals of Botany</Periodical><Volume>18</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Annuals of Botany</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</Z
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Z\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hyde 1954)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . In general, most naturally reseeded white clover seed is hard }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDTex\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Aut
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Longevity of white clover seed highly dependent on the level o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
f hard seed and is influenced by levels of aeration and temperature. Under New Zealand conditions, a five year break from white clover cultivation coupled to either annual cultivation or herbicide treatment is successfully employed in 90% of cases when wh
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 te clover cultivars are changed for seed production, reducing the volunteer plants to less than 1 per 10 m}{\super \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Clifford</Author><Year>1990</Year><RecNum>5299</RecNum><IDText>White clover soil seed loads: effect on requ\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
irements and resultant success of cultivar-change crops</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5299</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover soil seed loads: effect on requirements and resultant success of cultivar-change crops</Ti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le_Primary><Authors_Primary>Clifford,P.T.P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Baird,I.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Grbavac,N.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Sparks,G.A.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1990</Date_Primary><Keywords>contamination</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>cultivation</Keywords><Keywords>FATE</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>GENERATION</Keywords><Keywords>herbicide</Keywords><Keywords>Herbicides</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>volunteer</Keywords><Keywords>volunteer plants</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>95</St
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rt_Page><End_Page>98</End_Page><Periodical>Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association</Periodical><Volume>52</Volume><ISSN_ISBN>0369-3902</ISSN_ISBN><Address>DSIR Grasslands, Christchurch, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Pr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Clifford</Author><Year>1996</Year><RecNum>4713</RecNum><IDText>The intensifying requirements for white clover cultivar change<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4713</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The intensifying requirements for white clover cultivar change</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Clifford,P.T.P.</Authors_Primary><Aut
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ors_Primary>Sparks,G.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1996</Date_Primary><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>distance</Keywords><Keywords>growers</Keywords><Keywords>isolat
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
on</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollen deposition</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>19</Start_Page><End_Page>24</End_Page><Pub_Place>Chr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
stchurch</Pub_Place><Publisher>Agronomy Society of New Zealand</Publisher><Title_Series>White clover: New Zealand&apos;s competitive edge. Joint symposium</Title_Series><Address>AgResearch, PO Box 60, Lincoln, Christchurch, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_Workfo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 mID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Clifford et al. 1990; Clifford et al. 1996)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. In general, viability is retained for longer at low temperatures. Without active control, viability of hard seed in various undisturbed soil conditions has been sh\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 own to be reduced to 1% after 20 years }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Lewis</Author><Year>1973</Year><RecNum>5302</RecNum><IDText>Longevity of crop and weed seeds: survival after 20 years in soil</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal<\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5302</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Longevity of crop and weed seeds: survival after 20 years in soil</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lewis,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1973</Date_Primary><Keywords>ACID</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>cereals</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>land</Keywords><Keywords>percentage</Keywords><Keywords>Ph</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>plant breeding</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>See
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>temperature</Keywords><Keywords>variety</Keywords><Keywords>weed</Keywords><Keywords>weeds</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>179</Start_Page><End_Page>191</End_Page><Periodical>Weed Research</Pe
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
iodical><Volume>13</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><Address>Welsh Plant Breeding Stn, Aberystwyth, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Weed Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Lewis 1973)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and there are ra\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 re reports of white clover seed being viable for longer than 20 years }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>B\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ook Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Seco
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 dary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 The breaking of seed dormancy is again dependent on the cultivar (adaptability) and environment, and scar\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ification may be required for some white clovers }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white cl
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ver</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wall
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ngford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Germination of seed occurs in winter and spring and timing is dependent on environmental conditions }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Cite><Author>Archer</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>4910</RecNum><IDText>The role of stolons and seedlings in the persistence and production of white clover (Trifolium repens L. cv. Huia) in temperate pastures on the Northern Tablelands, New South Wale
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4910</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The role of stolons and seedlings in the persistence and production of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens </i>L. cv. Huia) in temperate pastures on the Norther
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 Tablelands, New South Wales</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Archer,K.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Robinson,G.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1989</Date_Primary><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>germination</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PATTERNS</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>pla
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>Probability</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Stress
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>production</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>Temperate</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>605</Start_Page><End_Page>616</En
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</Periodical><Volume>40</Volume><Issue>3</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0004-9409</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Agric Res Cent, Tamworth, NSW 2340, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journa
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  of Agricultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Archer & Robinson 1989)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Ideally, scarification, pre-exposure to low temperatures (less than 15}{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 176 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 C) and adequate levels of \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
moisture will ensure maximum germination of white clover seeds. Maximum growth rate of white clover plants occurs at about 24}{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 176 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
C but is very similar between 18}{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 176 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 C and 30}{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 176 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 C }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Populati
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
on dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Sta
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB Internation
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190587}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905414}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.4\tab Seed dispersal{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190587}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905414}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
White clover seeds can be dispersed long distances by human activities and through the digestive tract\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 of birds and grazing animals. Alternatively, short distance dispersal may occur by dehiscence, stock trampling, worms, ants and to a small extent by wind. Seeds can remain viable after passing through the digestive tracts of sheep, cattle and goats sever
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l days after consumption }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Suckling</Author><Year>1952</Year><RecNum>5311</RecNum><IDText>Dissemination of white clover (Trifolium repens) by sheep</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
311</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Dissemination of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i>) by sheep</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Suckling,F.E.T.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1952</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords>Sheep</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>64</Start_Page><End_Page>77</End_Page><Periodical>New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology</Periodical><Volume>A33</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">New Zealand Journal of Science an
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 Technology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Yamada</Author><Year>1971</Year><RecNum>5319</RecNum><IDText>Dissemination of pasture plants by livestocks I. Recovery and viability of some pasture plant seeds pas
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ed through digestive tract of goats</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5319</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Dissemination of pasture plants by livestocks I. Recovery and viability of some pasture plant seeds passed through digestiv
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 tract of goats</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Yamada,T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Kawaguchi,T.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1971</Date_Primary><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>livestock
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Goats</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>digestive</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>36</Start_Page><End_Page>47</End_Page><Periodical>Journal of Japanese Society
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
of Grassland Science</Periodical><Volume>17</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Journal of Japanese Society of Grassland Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Yamada</Author><Year>1972</Year><RecNum>53
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
5</RecNum><IDText>Dissemination of pasture plants by livestocks. 2. Recovery, viability and emergence of some pasture plant seeds passed through the digestive tract of the dairy cow</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5305<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Dissemination of pasture plants by livestocks. 2. Recovery, viability and emergence of some pasture plant seeds passed through the digestive tract of the dairy cow</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Yamada,T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
imary>Kawaguchi,T.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1972</Date_Primary><Keywords>Cattle</Keywords><Keywords>dairy</Keywords><Keywords>Diet</Keywords><Keywords>emergence</Keywords><Keywords>feed</Keywords><Keywords>feeding</Keywords><Keywords>germination</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>livestock</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>percentage</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>ryegrass</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>sorghum</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>digestive</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>8</Start_Page><End_Page>15</End_Page><Periodical>Journal of Japanese Society
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
of Grassland Science</Periodical><Volume>18</Volume><Issue>1</Issue><Address>National Grassland Research Institute, Nishinasuno, Tochigi</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Journal of Japanese Society of Grassland Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_Wor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 k\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 formID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Suckling 1952; Yamada & Kawaguchi 1971; Yamada & Kawaguchi 1972)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Viable seed can also be recovered from birds such as sparrows, pigeons, pheasants and rooks }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Krach</\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Author><Year>1959</Year><RecNum>5340</RecNum><IDText>Excretion of undigested seeds of clover, grasses and weeds of birds and effect of passage through stomach and intestine on their viability</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_ID>5340</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Excretion of undigested seeds of clover, grasses and weeds of birds and effect of passage through stomach and intestine on their viability</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Krach,K.E.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1959</Date
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Primary><Keywords>EXCRETION</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>weeds</Keywords><Keywords>weed</Keywords><Keywords>Birds</Keywords><Keywords>Stomach</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ge>405</Start_Page><End_Page>434</End_Page><Periodical>Zeitschrift f&#xFC;r Acker- und Pflanzenbau</Periodical><Volume>107</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Zeitschrift f&#xFC;r Acker- und Pflanzenbau</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_Workfo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 mID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Krach 1959)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 but the seed is relatively unattractive to birds due to its very small size. Ingestion of white clover seeds by earthworms does occur and viable seed are found in worm casts }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>McRill</Author><Year>1973</Year><RecNum>5303</RecNum><IDText>Earthworms and seeds</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5303</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Earthworms and seeds</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>McRill,M.</Authors_Prim
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ry><Authors_Primary>Sagar,G.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1973</Date_Primary><Keywords>barley</Keywords><Keywords>germination</Keywords><Keywords>Lolium</Keywords><Keywords>percentage</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>482</Start_Page><Periodical>Nature</Periodical><Volume>244</Volume><Issue>5408</Issue><Address>School of Plant Biology, University College of North Wales, Bangor</Addre
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Nature</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (McRill & Sagar 1973)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Distribution by common Australian animals and birds has not been studied. However, ants have been shown to carry w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 hite clover seeds in Australian pastures }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Campbell</Author><Year>1966</Year><RecNum>5313</RecNum><IDText>Theft by harvesting ants of pasture seed broadcast on unploughed land</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5313</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Theft by harvesting ants of pasture seed broadcast on unploughed land</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Campbell,M.H.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1966</Date_Primary><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>seed</Keywords><Keywords>land</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>334</Start_Page><End_Page>338</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental Agricultural and Animal Husbandry</Periodical><Volume>6</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 =\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 "System">Australian Journal of Experimental Agricultural and Animal Husbandry</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Campbell 1966)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190588}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905415}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.6.5\tab Stoloniferous regeneration{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190588}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905415}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 St\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
olon growth and survival has been shown to be vital as a regenerative strategy for white clover in determining the persistence of white clover in pastures }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hutchinson</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>4912</RecNum><ID\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Text>Effects of rainfall, moisture stress, and stocking rate on the persistence of white clover over 30 years</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4912</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Effects of rainfall, moisture stress, and stockin
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 rate on the persistence of white clover over 30 years</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hutchinson,K.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>King,K.L.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wilkinson,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>LONG-TERM</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>nature</Keywords><Keywords>Nitrogen</Keywords><Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
asture</Keywords><Keywords>PATTERNS</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Rates</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Stress
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>Water</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1039</Start_Page><End_Page>1047</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture</Periodical><Volume>35</Volume><Issue>7</Issue>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>CSIRO Div. Animal Prod., Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refm
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hutchinson et al. 1995)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Stolon growth ensures that the white clover plant persists as a perennial. As discussed earlier, a branched network of stolons radiates out from the primary plant and each stolon establishes itself as an independent plant }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  AD\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
DIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Thomas</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4709</RecNum><IDText>The structure of the mature plant</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4709</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The structure of
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
the mature plant</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,R.G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Reprint>In Fi
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>29</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CA
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 B\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Thomas 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Drops in soil moisture lead to a decline in white clover mass but once soil moisture conditions improve in cooler months, surviving stolons resume growth. Ma\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ximum growth potential of white clover is only achieved by stolon survival as seedling growth is slow and variable }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Archer</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>4910</RecNum><IDText>The role of stolons and seedlings in th\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e persistence and production of white clover (Trifolium repens L. cv. Huia) in temperate pastures on the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4910</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The role of stolo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s and seedlings in the persistence and production of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens </i>L. cv. Huia) in temperate pastures on the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Archer,K.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Robinso
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
,G.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1989</Date_Primary><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>germinatio
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PATTERNS</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>Probability</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eed</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>production</Keywords><Keywords>clover<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>Temperate</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>605</Start_Page><End_Page>616</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</Periodical><Volume>40</Volume><Issue>3</Issue><ISSN
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ISBN>0004-9409</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Agric Res Cent, Tamworth, NSW 2340, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Archer & Robin\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 son 1989)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190589}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905416}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 1.7\tab Pests and Diseases{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190589}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905416}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Insects and other invertebrates, fungi and viruses can affect white clover. However, there is only limited knowledge about fungal, viral and nematode influences a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nd their relative effects on productivity in pastures containing white clover }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Jahufer</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4726</RecNum><IDText>National white clover improvement programme Newletter 5</IDText><MDL Ref_Ty\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pe="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4726</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>National white clover improvement programme Newletter 5</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jahufer,M.Z.Z.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>20</End_Page><Volume>5</Volume><Authors_Secondary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Secondary><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jahufer 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Limitations of growth of white clover probably result from a complex interaction of one or more diseases with other constraints such as moisture stress, soil fertility, grazing pressure and competition }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Latch</Auth\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
or><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5338</RecNum><IDText>Diseases</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5338</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Diseases</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Latch,G.C.M</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Skip
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 p\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
,R.A.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>421</Start_Page><End_Page>460</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White clover</Ti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ISSN_ISBN>0 85198 571 8</ISSN_ISBN><Availability>Kylie Tattersall<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Availability><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Latch & Skipp 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Pest and disease susceptibility is also dependent on the white clover cultivar. For example, the cultivar Haifa is particularly susceptible to infections by Cucumbe\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r Mosaic Virus, Alfalfa Mosaic Virus, }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Sclerotinia}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  moulds and }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Botrytis}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  moulds }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Jahufer</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4726</RecNum><IDText>National white clover improvement programme Newletter 5</IDText><MDL Ref_Typ\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4726</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>National white clover improvement programme Newletter 5</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jahufer,M.Z.Z.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>20</End_Page><Volume>5</Volume><Authors_Secondary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Secondary><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jahufer 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 Furthermore, pest and disease problems depend on the region of Australia and the season. For example in West Gippsland, Victoria, lucerne flea is the major pest that attacks white clover in spring }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Jahufer</Author><\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4726</RecNum><IDText>National white clover improvement programme Newletter 5</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4726</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>National white clover improvement programme Newletter 5</Tit
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jahufer,M.Z.Z.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>20</End_Page><Volume>5</Volume><Auth
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 rs_Secondary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Secondary><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jahufer 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 

\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190590}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905417}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.7.1\tab Fungal diseases{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190590}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905417}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Fungal disease is associated with damage to taproots and stolon\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s and can lead to the subsequent death of these structures. The fungus }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Sclerotinia trifoliorium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 causes clover rot and can have a great impact on white clover productivity. Outbreaks occur most years although the incidence and severity of the disease varies\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 from year to year. Other minor fungal diseases include grey mould, which is caused by the fungus }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Botrytis cinerea}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and wart disease, which is caused by the fungus }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Physoderma trifolii}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Clarke</Author><Year>1999</Year>\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<RecNum>4928</RecNum><IDText>Diseases of white clover - 2: Fungal diseases</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Electronic Citation"><Ref_Type>Electronic Citation</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4928</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Diseases of white clover - 2: Fungal diseases</Title_Primary
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Authors_Primary>Clarke,R..</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</Date_Primary><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>fungal Diseases</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Periodical>http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Periodical><Publisher>Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria</Publisher><Misc_1>AG0732</Misc_1><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>34</ZZ_WorkformID></M
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 D\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 L></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Clarke 1999b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Fungi that cause leaf spot diseases in white clover include }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Leptosphaerulina trifolii}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (Pepper spot), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Pseudopeziza trifolii}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (Common leaf spot), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Cymadothea trifolii}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (Black/Sooty spot), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Stemphylium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  spp. (Stemphylium leaf s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 pot), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Stagonospora }{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 spp. (Stagonospora leaf spot), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Peronospora trifoliorium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (Downy mildew) and }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Erysiphe trifolii}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 (Powdery mildew) but all rarely cause significant losses }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Clarke</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>4929</RecNum><IDText>Diseases of white clover - 3: Leaf spot diseases</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Electronic Citation"><Ref_Type>Electronic Citation</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4929</Ref_ID
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Title_Primary>Diseases of white clover - 3: Leaf spot diseases</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Clarke,R..</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</Date_Primary><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>LEAF</Keywords><Keywords>leaf spot Diseases</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Periodical>http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf</Periodical><Publisher>Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria</Publisher><Misc_1>AG0733</Misc_1><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="Syst
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m">http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>34</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Clarke 1999c)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190591}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905418}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.7.2\tab Insects and other invertebrates{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190591}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905418}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 The range of invertebrate
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  pests in Australia varies according to location and whether the white clover is used for seed production or grazing. Some important pests which affect the establishment of white clover in Australia include red-legged mite (}{
\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Halotydeus destructor}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), blue oat\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  mite (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Penthaleus major}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), lucerne flea (}{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Sminthurus viridis}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), corbies, pasture web worms and related caterpillars (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Oncopera }{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 spp.), blackheaded pasture cockchafer (}{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Aphodius tasmaniae}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), pink cutworm (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Agrotis munda}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) and reticulated slug (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Deroceras reticulatum}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 )\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . The main pests affecting white clover seed-crops include native budworm (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Helicoverpa punctigera}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), clover casebearer (}{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Coleophora frischella}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) and bluegreen aphid (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Acyrthosiphon kondoi}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Berg</Author><Year>1993</Year>\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<RecNum>4722</RecNum><IDText>Invertebrate pests of White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4722</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Invertebrate pests of White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Berg,G.</Authors_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
imary><Date_Primary>1993</Date_Primary><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>91</Start_Page><End_Page>94</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White clover</Title_Secondary><Issue>8<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Issue><Pub_Place>Melbourne</Pub_Place><Publisher>Dairy Research and Development Corporation</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Berg 1993)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . There is little information published on the economic impact of invertebrate pests \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
on white clover productivity. The red-legged mite and lucerne flea may have the greatest impact on white clover productivity especially in the establishment of pastures in Victoria }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Berg</Author><Year>1993</Year><Rec\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Num>4722</RecNum><IDText>Invertebrate pests of White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4722</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Invertebrate pests of White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Berg,G.</Authors_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y><Date_Primary>1993</Date_Primary><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>91</Start_Page><End_Page>94</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White clover</Title_Secondary><Issue>8</Iss
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e><Pub_Place>Melbourne</Pub_Place><Publisher>Dairy Research and Development Corporation</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Berg 1993)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Short-lived insecticides such as organophosphate are the main chemicals used to control\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  invertebrate pests in white clover }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Berg</Author><Year>1993</Year><RecNum>4722</RecNum><IDText>Invertebrate pests of White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4722</R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ef_ID><Title_Primary>Invertebrate pests of White clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Berg,G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1993</Date_Primary><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Start_Page>91</Start_Page><End_Page>94</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White clover</Title_Secondary><Issue>8</Issue><Pub_Place>Melbourne</Pub_Place><Publisher>Dairy Research and Development Corporation</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Berg 1993)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Nematodes may significantly reduce white clover performance by reducing root growth and nitrogen fixation, and by stunting both leaf and stolon growth }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Lane</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>47\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
17</RecNum><IDText>The pastoral significance, adaptive characteristics, and grazing value of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4717</Ref_ID
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Title_Primary>The pastoral significance, adaptive characteristics, and grazing value of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lane,L.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
res,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lovett,J.V.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>biomass</Keywords><Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 b\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
reeding</Keywords><Keywords>Cattle</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>CONSERVATION</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Keywords>Major</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PERFORMANCE</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>S
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eep</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1033</Start_Page><End_Page>1046</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</Periodical><Volume>40</Volume><Issue>7</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ssue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 Agricultural Research and Advisory Station, NSW Agriculture, Glen Innes, NSW, 2370: leah.lane@agric.nsw.gov.au, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental.A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 riculture.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Lane et al. 2000)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Examples of nematodes found in white clover swards in the subtropics of Australia include the root-knot nematode (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Meloidogyne}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  spp.) the clover \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 cyst nematode (}{
\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Heterodera trifolii}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) and a freeliving nematode (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Helicotylenchus dihystera}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Zahid</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>5341</RecNum><IDText>Survey of fungi and nematodes associated with root and stolon dis\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eases of white clover in the subtropical dairy region of Australia</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5341</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Survey of fungi and nematodes associated with root and stolon diseases of white clover in th
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 subtropical dairy region of Australia</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Zahid,M.I.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gurr,G.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Nikandrow,A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hodda,M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Fulke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
son,W.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Nicol,H.I.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2001</Date_Primary><Keywords>analysis</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>dairy</Keywords><Keywords>DISEAS
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 E\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>Fungi</Keywords><Keywords>Fusarium</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>nematode</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PERFORMANCE</Keywords><Keywords>P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 E\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
RSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>Phytophthora</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Queensland</Keywords><Keywords>REGION</Keywords><Keywords>ROOT</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SITE</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Repri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1133</Start_Page><End_Page>1142</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture</Periodical><Volume>41</Volume><Issue>8</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>University of Sydney, Orange, PO Bo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 x\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  883, NSW 2800, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Zahid et al. 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Other nematodes that attack white clover in\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 clude the stem nematode (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Ditylenchus dipsaci}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), and root lesion nematodes. 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190592}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905419}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 1.7.3\tab Viral diseases{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190592}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905419}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
The presence of white clover mosaic virus (WCMV), alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) and yellow vein virus (CYVV) in clo\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ver is widespread throughout Australia and all have an impact on white clover productivity. AMV can cause severe losses, with reports of up to 60% damage to pasture legumes }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Garrett</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
725</RecNum><IDText>Impact of viruses on pasture legume productivity</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4725</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Impact of viruses on pasture legume productivity</Title_Primar
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Authors_Primary>Garrett,R.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>50</Start_Page><End_Page>56</End_Page><Title_Series>Proceedings of Department of Agriculture Victoria White Clover Conference</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Garrett 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . AMV and CYVV are transmitted by aphids only whereas WCMV is not aphid- or seed-borne but is readily spread by machinery }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Garrett</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4725</RecNum><IDText>Impact of viru\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ses on pasture legume productivity</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4725</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Impact of viruses on pasture legume productivity</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Garrett,R.G.</A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
thors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Reprint>I
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 File</Reprint><Start_Page>50</Start_Page><End_Page>56</End_Page><Title_Series>Proceedings of Department of Agriculture Victoria White Clover Conference</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Garrett 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Incidences of v\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 iral infection in stands older than 2 years are commonly 20% or more }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Clarke</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>4927</RecNum><IDText>Diseases of white clover - 1: virus diseases</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Electronic Citati\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
on"><Ref_Type>Electronic Citation</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4927</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Diseases of white clover - 1: virus diseases</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Clarke,R..</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>Virus Diseases</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Periodical>http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf</Periodical><Publisher>Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria</Publisher
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <Misc_1>AG0731</Misc_1><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>34</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Clarke 1999a)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , although in one study, infection of white clover by AM\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 V and WCMV exceeded 90% }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Norton</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>4916</RecNum><IDText>Occurrence of alfalfa mosaic, clover yellow vein, subterranean clover red leaf, and white clover mosaic viruses in white clover th
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
roughout Australia</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4916</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Occurrence of alfalfa mosaic, clover yellow vein, subterranean clover red leaf, and white clover mosaic viruses in white clover throughout A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
stralia</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Norton,M.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Johnstone,G.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998</Date_Primary><Keywords>analysis</Keywords><Keywords>Antibodies</Keywords><Keywords>antibody</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTR
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
LIA</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>ELISA</Keywords><Keywords>Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>INFECTION</Keywords><Keywords>LEAF</Keywords><Keywords>Mosaic Viru
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
es</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>SITE</Keywords><Keywords>soybean</Keywords><Keywords>STATE</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>723</Start_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 age><End_Page>728</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</Periodical><Volume>49</Volume><Issue>4</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0004-9409</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 NSW Agric., Wagga Wagga Agric. Inst., Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650, Australia</Address\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Norton & Johnstone 1998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 and in another greater than 86% infection by AMV was found }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CIT\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
E <Refman><Cite><Author>Mckirdy</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>4914</RecNum><IDText>Occurrence of alfalfa mosaic and subterranean clover red leaf viruses in legume pastures in Western Australia</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Ref_ID>4914</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Occurrence of alfalfa mosaic and subterranean clover red leaf viruses in legume pastures in Western Australia</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Mckirdy,S.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jones,R.A.C.</Authors_Primary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay</Keywords><Keywords>Incidence</Keywords><Keywords>INFECTION</Keywords><Keywords>LEAF</Keywords><Keywords>MOSAIC-VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>transmission</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>763</Start_Page><End_Page>774</End_Page>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Periodical>Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</Periodical><Volume>46</Volume><Issue>4</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0004-9409</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 Plant Industries Div., Dep. Agric., Baron-Hay Court, South Perth, WA 6151, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFul\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><f name="System">Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Mckirdy & Jones 1995)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Glasshouse studies have shown dry mass losses of up to 24% due to the presence of WCMV }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Clarke</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>4927</RecNum><IDText>Diseases of white clover - 1: virus diseases</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Electronic Citation"><Ref_Type>Electronic Citation</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4927</Ref_ID><Title_Pr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
mary>Diseases of white clover - 1: virus diseases</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Clarke,R..</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>Virus Diseases<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Periodical>http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf</Periodical><Publisher>Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria</Publisher><Misc_1>AG0731</Misc_1><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">http://www.dp
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>34</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Clarke 1999a)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 and up to 60% due to AMV }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Kalla</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>4715</RecNum><IDText>Mole\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
cular breeding of forage legumes for virus resistance</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4715</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Molecular breeding of forage legumes for virus resistance</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Kalla
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ,\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chu,P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Spangenberg,G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2001</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>Biotechnology</Keywords><Keywords>breedi
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
g</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE RESISTANCE</Keywords><Keywords>forage</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>GENOME</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>pathogen-derived resistance</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>plant biotechnology</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</Keywords><Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>virus resistance</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>219</Start_Page><End_Page>237</End_Page><Title_Secondary>Molecular breeding of forage crops. Proceedin
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s of the 2nd International Symposium, Molecular Breeding of Forage Crops, Lorne and Hamilton, Victoria, Australia, 19-24 November, 2000</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Spangenberg,G.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Dordrecht</Pub_Place><Publisher>Kluwer
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Academic Publishers</Publisher><ISSN_ISBN>0-7923-6881-9</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Plant Biotechnology Centre, Agriculture Victoria, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia</Address><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Kalla et a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l. 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. In the field, AMV, CYVV and WCMV may reduce white clover pasture production by up to 30% through reduced foliage yield and quality, reduced nitrogen fixing capacity and reduced vegetative persistence }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Ka\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
lla</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>4715</RecNum><IDText>Molecular breeding of forage legumes for virus resistance</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4715</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Molecular breeding of forage legu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
es for virus resistance</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Kalla,R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chu,P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Spangenberg,G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2001</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALI
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>Biotechnology</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE RESISTANCE</Keywords><Keywords>forage</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>G
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nes</Keywords><Keywords>GENOME</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>pathogen-derived resistance</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>plant biotechnology</Keywords><Keywords>res
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
stance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>virus resistance</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>219</Start_Page><End_Page>237</End_Page>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Title_Secondary>Molecular breeding of forage crops. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium, Molecular Breeding of Forage Crops, Lorne and Hamilton, Victoria, Australia, 19-24 November, 2000</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Spangenberg,G.</Autho
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s_Secondary><Pub_Place>Dordrecht</Pub_Place><Publisher>Kluwer Academic Publishers</Publisher><ISSN_ISBN>0-7923-6881-9</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Plant Biotechnology Centre, Agriculture Victoria, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia</Address><Z
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Z\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Kalla et al. 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Other viruses known to infect white clover in Australia include bean common mosaic virus, clover yellow mosaic virus, peanut stunt mosaic virus, subterranean clover red leaf virus a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nd rugose leaf curl virus, with many other viruses also being detected in white clover }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Garrett</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4725</RecNum><IDText>Impact of viruses on pasture legume productivity</IDText><MDL Ref_\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4725</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Impact of viruses on pasture legume productivity</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Garrett,R.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>50</Start_Page><End_Page
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 56</End_Page><Title_Series>Proceedings of Department of Agriculture Victoria White Clover Conference</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Garrett 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . It is estimated that the agronomic impact of viruses on white clove\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r equates to a loss of $30 million annually to the Australian diary industry }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Garrett</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4725</RecNum><IDText>Impact of viruses on pasture legume productivity</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conf
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
erence Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4725</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Impact of viruses on pasture legume productivity</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Garrett,R.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>IMPA
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 C\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
T</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>50</Start_Page><End_Page>56</End_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ge><Title_Series>Proceedings of Department of Agriculture Victoria White Clover Conference</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Garrett 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par }\pard\plain \s1\ql \fi-1134\li1134\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1134\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin1134\itap0 \b\caps\fs28\lang3081\langfe1033\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp1033 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190593}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905420}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.\tab Toxicity and Allergenicity of White Clover{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190593}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905420}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
White clover is not a pathogen and is not capable of causing disease in humans, animals or plants. However, white clover can potentially be toxic to grazing animals if ingested in large quantities or under particular situations bec
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ause of the presence of toxic and anti-nutritional compounds.
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190594}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905421}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 2.1\tab Toxicity{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190594}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905421}
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190595}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905422}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.1.1\tab Bloat{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190595}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905422}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Some legumes including white clover can cause bloat in ruminants.\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 Bloat occurs if foams containing gases form and stabilise in the rumen during microbial fermentation leading to respiratory and circulatory malfunction. Ingestion of foliage containing high levels of starch and carbohydrates may promote bloat, and saponi
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s, colloidal particles, and soluble proteins present in white clover may all play a role in bloat }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hart</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5212</RecNum><IDText>Physiology</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5212</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Physiology</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hart,A.L.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>physiology</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Ti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Cite><Cite><Author>Lane</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>4717</RecNum><IDText>The pastoral significance, adaptive characteristics, and grazing value of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</IDText><MDL Ref_Ty
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 p\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4717</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The pastoral significance, adaptive characteristics, and grazing value of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</Title_Primary><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
uthors_Primary>Lane,L.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lovett,J.V.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>biomass</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>Cattle</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>CONSERVATION</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Keywords>Major</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PERFORMANCE</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eneration</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1033</Start_Page><End_Page>1046</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experi
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ental.Agriculture.</Periodical><Volume>40</Volume><Issue>7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>\{a\}
 Agricultural Research and Advisory Station, NSW Agriculture, Glen Innes, NSW, 2370: leah.lane@agric.nsw.gov.au, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalSt\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Abbrev><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hart 1987; Lane et al. 2000)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 

\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190596}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905423}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.1.2\tab Cyanogenesis{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190596}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905423}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Cya\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nogenesis is the release of hydrogen cyanide from damaged plant tissue. White clover is polymorphic for cyanogenesis and therefore populations can be composed of both acyanogenic and cyanogenic individuals. White clover plants that are cyanogenic contain 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 he cyanogenic glucosides laminarin and lotaustralin and the enzyme linamarase which is responsible for hydrolysing the cyanogenic glucosides and releasing hydrogen cyanide }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hart</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5212<\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/RecNum><IDText>Physiology</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5212</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Physiology</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hart,A.L.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>physiolog
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Pu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 b\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 lisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hart 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. The cyanogenic phenotype is dependent on two complimentary dominant genes; one which determines the inheritance of the cyanogenic glucosides and the o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ther which determines the inheritance of the linamarase }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Collinge</Author><Year>1984</Year><RecNum>5364</RecNum><IDText>Evidence that linamarin and lotaustralin, the two cyanogenic glucosides of Trifolium repens L., \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
are synthesized by a single set of microsomal enzymes controlled by the Ac/ac locus</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5364</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Evidence that linamarin and lotaustralin, the two cyanogenic glucosides of 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
i>Trifolium repens L</i>., are synthesized by a single set of microsomal enzymes controlled by the <i>Ac/ac</i> locus</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Collinge,D.B.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hughes,M.A.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1984</Date_Pri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ary><Keywords>cyanogenic glucosides</Keywords><Keywords>ENZYME</Keywords><Keywords>Enzymes</Keywords><Keywords>Glucosides</Keywords><Keywords>LOCUS</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>119</Start_Page><End_Page>125
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/End_Page><Periodical>Plant Science Letters</Periodical><Volume>34</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Plant Science Letters</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Hart</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>5212</Re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Num><IDText>Physiology</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5212</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Physiology</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hart,A.L.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>physiology</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publis
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 er>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Collinge & Hughes 1984; Hart 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Levels of cyanogenic activity differ among cyanogenic plants and, although this variation does have a heritable basis, it also can\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 be determined by other factors such as light intensity, plant maturity temperature, moisture stress and phosphorous application }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Vickery</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4921</RecNum><IDText>Factors affecting the hy\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
drogen cyanide potential of white clover (Trifolium repens L.)</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4921</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Factors affecting the hydrogen cyanide potential of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.)</T
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
tle_Primary><Authors_Primary>Vickery,P.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wheeler,J.L.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Mulcahy,C.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>ABSORPTION</Keywords><Keywords>Aged</Keywords><Keywords>Anima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>climate</Keywords><Keywords>Diet</Keywords><Keywords>LIGHT</Keywords><Keywords>light intensity</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>Pregnancy</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1053</Start_Page><End_Page>1059</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
riodical><Volume>38</Volume><Issue>6</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0004-9409</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Div Animal Production, CSIRO Pastoral Res Lab, Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</f></ZZ
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Vickery et al. 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 The level of the glucosides in the foliage may be sufficiently high for grazing animals to suffer from direct cyanide poisoning but the risk is low. Instead, cyani\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
de metabolites interfere with selenium metabolism which in turn causes problems in ruminants. High cyanogenic white clover has been implicated in nutritional myopathy, a muscle wasting condition of young rapidly growing animals, by expose to high cyanogen
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c forage during pregnancy }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Gutzwiller</Author><Year>1993</Year><RecNum>5300</RecNum><IDText>The effect of a diet containing cyanogenetic glycosides on the selenium status and the thyroid function of sheep</IDText><MD
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
L Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5300</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The effect of a diet containing cyanogenetic glycosides on the selenium status and the thyroid function of sheep</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gutzwiller,A.</Authors_Pr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
mary><Date_Primary>1993</Date_Primary><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>Creatine Kinase</Keywords><Keywords>Diet</Keywords><Keywords>Glycosides</Keywords><Keywords>PEROXIDASE</Keywords><Keywords>Pregnancy</Keywords><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Research</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>Silage</Keywords><Keywords>susceptibility</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>415</Start_Page><End_Page>419</End_Page><Periodical>Animal Production</Periodical><Volume>57</Volume><Issue>3<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Issue><Address>Swiss Federal Research Station for Animal Production, 1725 Posieux, Switzerland</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Animal Production</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Lehmann</Author><Year
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
1991</Year><RecNum>5301</RecNum><IDText>Should one use white clover (Trifolium repens L.) varieties rich in hydrogen cyanide? Original language title: Peut-on utiliser des varietes de trefle blanc (Trifolium repens L.) a forte teneur en acide cyanhydrique
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ?\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5301</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Should one use white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) varieties rich in hydrogen cyanide? Original language title: Peut-on utiliser des varietes de trefle 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 b\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
lanc (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) a forte teneur en acide cyanhydrique?</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lehmann,J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Meister,E.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gutzwiller,A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jans,F.</Auth
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rs_Primary><Authors_Primary>Charles,J.P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Blum,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>animals</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>blood</Keywords><Keywords>Cattle</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>dairy</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE RESISTANCE</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>forage</Keywords><Keywords>Glycosides</Keywords><Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
EROXIDASE</Keywords><Keywords>Pregnancy</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>SOILS</Keywords><Keywords>Trifoli
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
m</Keywords><Keywords>variety</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>107</Start_Page><End_Page>112</End_Page><Periodical>Revue Suisse d&apos;Agriculture</Periodical><Volume>23</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>03
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 7\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
5-1325</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Station Federale de Recherches Agronomiques de Reckenholz, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Revue Suisse d&apos;Agriculture</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Ref
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 an>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Gutzwiller 1993; Lehmann et al. 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. High levels of cyanogenesis may also increase the risk of goitre formation in ruminants such as sheep depending on body iodine reserves }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Gutzwiller</Author><Year>1993</Ye\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ar><RecNum>5300</RecNum><IDText>The effect of a diet containing cyanogenetic glycosides on the selenium status and the thyroid function of sheep</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5300</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The effect of 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 diet containing cyanogenetic glycosides on the selenium status and the thyroid function of sheep</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gutzwiller,A.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1993</Date_Primary><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>Creatine Kinase</Keywords><Keywords>Diet</Keywords><Keywords>Glycosides</Keywords><Keywords>PEROXIDASE</Keywords><Keywords>Pregnancy</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>Silage</Keywords><Keywords>susceptibility</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>415</Start_Page><End_Page>419</End_Page><Periodical>Animal Production</Periodical><Volume>57</Volume><Issue>3</Issue><Address>Swiss Federal Research Station for Animal Production, 1725 Posieux, Switzerland</Add
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ess><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Animal Production</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Gutzwiller 1993)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . It is recommended that only white clover with levels of less than 700 }{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 109 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g hy\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
drogen cyanide/g dry matter be used to ensure limited disruption to selenium metabolism }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Lehmann</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>5301</RecNum><IDText>Should one use white clover (Trifolium repens L.) varieties rich \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
in hydrogen cyanide? Original language title: Peut-on utiliser des varietes de trefle blanc (Trifolium repens L.) a forte teneur en acide cyanhydrique?</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5301</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Should 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ne use white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) varieties rich in hydrogen cyanide? Original language title: Peut-on utiliser des varietes de trefle blanc (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) a forte teneur en acide cyanhydrique?</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 L\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ehmann,J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Meister,E.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gutzwiller,A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jans,F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Charles,J.P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Blum,J.</Authors_Primary><Dat
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>animals</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>blood</Keywords><Keywords>Cattle</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>dairy</Keywords><Keywords>DISEASE</Keywords><Keywords>DISE
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
SE RESISTANCE</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>forage</Keywords><Keywords>Glycosides</Keywords><Keywords>PEROXIDASE</Keywords><Keywords>Pregnancy</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>SOILS</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>variety</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Star
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Page>107</Start_Page><End_Page>112</End_Page><Periodical>Revue Suisse d&apos;Agriculture</Periodical><Volume>23</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0375-1325</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Station Federale de Recherches Agronomiques de Reckenholz, 8046 Zurich, Switz
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 rland</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Revue Suisse d&apos;Agriculture</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Lehmann et al. 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . The white clover plants benefit from limited levels of cyanogenesis by havin\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g increased resistance to insect herbivory and increased seedling establishment }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Pederson</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>5295</RecNum><IDText>Cyanogenesis effect on insect damage to seedling white clover in a bermu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
dagrass sod</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5295</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Cyanogenesis effect on insect damage to seedling white clover in a bermudagrass sod</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Pederson,G.A.</Authors_Primary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Authors_Primary>Brink,G.E.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998</Date_Primary><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>cotyledon</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>feeding</Keywords><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>forage</Keywords><Keywords>Insect</Keywords><Keywords>LEAF</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATION</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>STATE
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>Toxicity</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>208</Start_Page><End_Page>210</End_Page><Periodical>Agronomy Journal</Periodical><Volume>90</Volume><Issue>2</I
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
sue><ISSN_ISBN>0002-1962</ISSN_ISBN><Address>USDA-ARS, Crop Sci Res Lab, Forage Res Unit, PO Box 5367, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Agronomy Journal</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 C\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Pederson & Brink 1998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \fi-1418\li1418\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1418\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin1418\itap0 \b\fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190597}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905424}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2.1.3\tab Phytoestrogens{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190597}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905424}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Coumestrol, an oestrogenic flavonoid, is present in white clover and can interfere with reproduction or have a growth enhancing effect }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFM\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
GR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Saloniemi</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>5268</RecNum><IDText>Phytoestrogen content and estrogenic effect of legume fodder</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5268</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Phyt
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
estrogen content and estrogenic effect of legume fodder</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Saloniemi,H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wahala,K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Nykanen-Kurki,P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Kallela,K.</Authors_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y><Authors_Primary>Saastamoinen,I.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995/1</Date_Primary><Keywords>analysis</Keywords><Keywords>anatomy &amp; histology</Keywords><Keywords>Animal Feed</Keywords><Keywords>animals</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>bi
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
logical</Keywords><Keywords>chemical</Keywords><Keywords>chemistry</Keywords><Keywords>Coumestrol</Keywords><Keywords>Estrogens,Non-Steroidal</Keywords><Keywords>Fabaceae</Keywords><Keywords>Female</Keywords><Keywords>Finland</Keywords><Keywords>Genistein
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>Isoflavones</Keywords><Keywords>medicine</Keywords><Keywords>Organ Weight</Keywords><Keywords>Pharmacology</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Plant Preparations</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>Plants,Medicinal
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>Rats</Keywords><Keywords>Uterus</Keywords><Keywords>variety</Keywords><Keywords>veterinary</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>13</Start_Page><End_Page>17</End_Page><Periodical>Proceedin
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s of the Society for Experimental and Biological Medicine</Periodical><Volume>208</Volume><Issue>1</Issue><Address>Department of Basic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Helsinki, Finland</Address><Web_URL>PM:7892287</Web_URL><ZZ_Journal
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 F\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ull><f name="System">Proceedings of the Society for Experimental and Biological Medicine</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Saloniemi et al. 1995)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . However, most white clover cultivars have little oestrogenic acti\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 vity.
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190598}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905425}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 2.2\tab Allergenicity{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190598}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905425}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
In terms of allergenicity, white clover pollen is not considered to be an airborne allergen for humans due to the physical characteristics of the pollen. However, physical cont\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
act with white clover could potentially trigger an allergic response in some people although there are no reports of any major allergic responses.
\par }\pard\plain \s1\ql \fi-1134\li1134\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1134\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin1134\itap0 \b\caps\fs28\lang3081\langfe1033\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp1033 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190599}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905426}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 3.\tab Weediness of White Clover{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190599}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905426}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 There have been numerous attempt
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s to characterise the \hich\f0 \lquote \loch\f0 typical\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0  traits of weeds }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Baker</Author><Year>1965</Year><RecNum>1091</RecNum><IDText>The genetics of colonizing species: Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Boo\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
k Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>1091</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The genetics of colonizing species: Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Baker,H.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1965</Date_Primary><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords>ORIGIN</Keywords><Keywords>weeds</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>147</Start_Page><End_Page>172</End_Page><Title_Secondary>The Genetics of Colonizing Species</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,H.G
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Stebbins,G.L.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>New York and London</Pub_Place><Publisher>Academic Press</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Bazzaz</Author><Year>1986</Year><RecNum>3941<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
RecNum><IDText>Life history of colonizing plants: some demographic, genetic and physiological features</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>3941</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Life history of colonizing plants: some demogr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
phic, genetic and physiological features</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Bazzaz,F.A.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1986</Date_Primary><Keywords>HISTORY</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>ECOLOGY</Keywords><Keywords>b
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ological</Keywords><Keywords>invasion</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>96</Start_Page><End_Page>110</End_Page><Title_Secondary>Ecology of Biological Invasions</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Mooney,H.A.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_S
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
condary>Drake,J.A.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>New York</Pub_Place><Publisher>Springer-Verlag</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Noble</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>3942</RecNum><IDText>Attributes of invaders and th
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 invading process: terrestrial and vascular plants</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>3942</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Attributes of invaders and the invading process: terrestrial and vascular plants</Title_Primary><A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
thors_Primary>Noble,I.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1989</Date_Primary><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>biological</Keywords><Keywords>invasion</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>301</Start_Page><End_Page
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
314</End_Page><Title_Secondary>Biological Invasions: a Global Perspective</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Drake,J.A.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Mooney,H.A.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>di Castri,F.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secon
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ary>Groves,R.H.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Kruger,F.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Rejmanek,M.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williamson,M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Chichester</Pub_Place><Publisher>John Wiley &amp; Sons</P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
blisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Roy</Author><Year>1990</Year><RecNum>2690</RecNum><IDText>In search of the characteristics of plant invaders</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>2
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 6\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
90</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>In search of the characteristics of plant invaders</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Roy,J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1990</Date_Primary><Keywords>biological</Keywords><Keywords>invasion</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 p\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>335</Start_Page><End_Page>352</End_Page><Title_Secondary>Biological invasions in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>di Castri,F.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Hansen,A.J.</Autho
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Debussche,M.</Authors_Secondary><Issue>20</Issue><Pub_Place>Dordrecht, The Netherlands</Pub_Place><Publisher>Kluwer Academic Publishers</Publisher><ISSN_ISBN>0-7923-0411-X</ISSN_ISBN><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></C
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
te><Cite><Author>Williamson</Author><Year>1996</Year><RecNum>3943</RecNum><IDText>The characters of successful invaders</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>3943</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The characters of successful invaders</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
itle_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williamson,M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Fitter,A.H.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1996</Date_Primary><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>163</Start_Page><End_Page>170</End_Page><Periodical>Biological conservati
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n</Periodical><Volume>78</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Biological conservation</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Baker 1965; Bazzaz 1986; Noble 1989; Roy 1990; Williamson & Fitter 1996)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . These attribut\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
es include ability to germinate, survive, and reproduce under a wide range of environmental conditions; long-lived seed with extended dormancy periods; rapid seedling growth; rapid growth to reproductive stage; long continuous seed production; ability to 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
elf pollinate but not exclusively autogamous; use of unspecialised pollinators or wind when outcrossing; high seed output under favourable conditions; special adaptations for long distance and short distance dispersal; and being good competitors. However,
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
because environmental conditions have a big influence on these attributes, and other factors such as plant community composition also play a role in invasivness of a plant species, weedy characters alone are not enough to determine if a plant will become 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  weed. Therefore, the most successful predictors of weediness remain taxonomic affinity to other weedy species and the history of the species weediness elsewhere in the world }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Panetta</Author><Year>1993</Year><RecNum\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>3424</RecNum><IDText>A system of assessing proposed plant introductions for weed potential</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>3424</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>A system of assessing proposed plant introductions for weed potenti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
l</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Panetta,F.D.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1993</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>classification</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>weed</Keywords><Keywords>weeds</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>10</Start_Page><End_Page>14</End_Page><Periodical>Plant Protection Quarterly</Periodica
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Volume>8</Volume><Issue>1</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0815-2195</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Dep. Lands, GPO Box 1401, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Plant Protection Quarterly</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 M\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
DL></Cite><Cite><Author>Pheloung</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>3944</RecNum><IDText>A weed risk assessment model for use as a biosecurity tool evaluating plant introductions</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>3944</Ref_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
D><Title_Primary>A weed risk assessment model for use as a biosecurity tool evaluating plant introductions</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Pheloung,P.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,P.A.,</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Halloy,S.R.</Author
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</Date_Primary><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>weeds</Keywords><Keywords>weed</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>risk assessment</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>biologic
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
l</Keywords><Keywords>weediness</Keywords><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>REGION</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>239</Start_Page><End_Page>251</End_Page><Periodical>Journal of Environmental Man
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 gement</Periodical><Volume>57</Volume><Issue>4</Issue><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Journal of Environmental Management</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Panetta 1993; Pheloung et al. 1999)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190600}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905427}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 3.1\tab Weediness on a Global Scale{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190600}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905427}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
The most comprehensive compilation of the world\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0 s weed flora is produced by Randall }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Randall</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>3839</RecNum><IDTex\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t>A global compendium of weeds</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book, Whole"><Ref_Type>Book, Whole</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>3839</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>A global compendium of weeds</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Randall,R.P</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y><Keywords>weeds</Keywords><Keywords>weed</Keywords><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>905</End_Page><Pub_Place>Meredith, Victoria</Pub_Place><Publisher>R.G. &amp; F
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
J. Richardson</Publisher><ISSN_ISBN>0 9587439 8 3</ISSN_ISBN><Misc_1>1</Misc_1><Address>Department of Agriculture, Western Australia.  E-mail: rprandall@agric.wa.gov.au</Address><Web_URL><u>www.weedinfo.com.au</u></Web_URL><ZZ_WorkformID>2</ZZ_WorkformID>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Randall 2002)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. Most of the information contained in this book has been sourced from Australia and North American countries but also includes numerous naturalised floras from many other countries. Seventy }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  species are liste\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
d in this book and are categorised as naturalised, weeds and/or environmental weeds and many are found in a number of different countries highlighting the successful spread and establishment of the genus}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  Trifolium}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  in many countries. Randall gives a number \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
of descriptors for the weed status of white clover in various countries. These include weed (normally an economic weed), naturalised (self-sustaining and spreading populations with no human assistance), introduced (purposely planted and therefore desirabl
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  in certain situations), garden escape (species originating from gardens), and environmental weed (invades native ecosystems).  
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190601}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905428}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 3.2\tab Weediness in Australia{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190601}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905428}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
In Australia, white clover is generally clas\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 sified as a weed in most States }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Groves</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>5320</RecNum><IDText>Weed categories for natural and agricultural ecosystems management</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book, Whole"><Ref_Type>Book, Who\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5320</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Weed categories for natural and agricultural ecosystems management</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Groves,R.H.(convenor)</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hosking,J.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Bati
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
noff,G.N.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Cooke,D.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Cowie,I.D.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Johnson,R.W.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Keighery,G.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lepschi,B.J.</Authors_Prim
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ry><Authors_Primary>Mitchell,A.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Moerkerk,M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Randall,R.P</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Rozefelds,A.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Walsh,N.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>W
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
terhouse,B.M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2003</Date_Primary><Keywords>weed</Keywords><Keywords>Ecosystem</Keywords><Keywords>management</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Pub_Place>Canberra</Pub_Place><Publisher>Bureau of Rural Sciences</Publisher><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 SSN_ISBN>0 642 47534 2</ISSN_ISBN><Availability>Tony Willis</Availability><ZZ_WorkformID>2</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Groves et al. 2003)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . A rating for white clover has been given for its status as a naturalised non-native species in natural \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ecosystems and agricultural ecosystems in Australia. Under the categories for assessing the status of naturalised non-native species in natural ecosystems, white clover is given a rating of 4 in Australia which means it is naturalised and known to be a ma
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 j\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
or problem at 3 or fewer locations within a State or Territory. The rating for white clover in agricultural ecosystems is 5 which means it is naturalised and known to be a major problem at 4 or more locations within a State or Territory. Individual rating
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 have been given on a State/Territory level for white clover as a weed in agricultural ecosystems and there is a large variation in the ratings. The State with the highest rating is Queensland, which rates white clover as 5 due to its presence in turf. A 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ating of 3 is given by New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia, which means white clover is naturalised and known to be a minor problem warranting control at 4 or more locations within a State or Territory, with Western Australia actively controll
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ng populations within some parts of the State. White clover has a rating of 1 in South Australia, which means it is naturalised and may be a minor problem but is not considered important enough to warrant control at any location. Tasmania does not give a 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ating for white clover as an agricultural weed probably because it is not considered a problem.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 As shown in Figure 1, white clover is distributed in many temperate areas of Australia. These areas include potentially sensitive ecosystems such as woodlands a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nd grasslands of montane and subalpine regions, of which some may be areas of national environmental significance and therefore included in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999). However, to date there is limited information 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
n the impact of white clover on native flora and fauna. Potentially, white clover may spread even further into new areas (See Figure 2). White clover tends to establish in areas that have been disturbed and where there is minimal competition from other pl
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 nt specie, such as roadsides and freshly excavated areas }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Godfree</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>5650</RecNum><IDText>White clover (Trifolium repens) and associated viruses in the subalpine region of southeastern A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ustralia: implications for GMO risk assessment</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5650</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i>) and associated viruses in the subalpine region of southeastern Australia:
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
implications for GMO risk assessment</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Godfree,R.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chu,P.W.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woods,M.J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2004</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>REGION</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>GMO</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>risk assessment</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Periodical>Australian Journal of Botany</Periodical><Volume>In press</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Botany</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Godfree et al. 2004)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 In lowland grasslands of Victoria, white clover is common along roadsides, but tends to be restricted to the shoulder of the road and does not enter the adjacent native grassland verge }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Garrett</Author><Year>1997</Ye\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ar><RecNum>4732</RecNum><IDText>White clover expressing the coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus: field trial issues</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4732</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover e
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 x\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pressing the coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus: field trial issues</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Garrett,R.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chu,P.W.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>CO
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
T PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>MOSAIC-VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic crops</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>clover</Keywords><Keywords>Alfalfa mosaic virus</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>125</Start_Page><End_Page>136</End_Page><Periodical>Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops: Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations</Periodical><Authors_Se
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ondary>McLean,G.D.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Waterhouse,P.M.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Evans,G.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Gibbs,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Canberra</Pub_Place><Publisher>Bureau of Resource Scienc
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s</Publisher><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops: Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Garrett & Chu 1997)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . In the Bogong high plains, white\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 clover is found in clearings but only at low densities of less than 1% ground cover in moist flushes on ridges, slopes and streamside flats. It has been found around recently disturbed areas around ski lodges. It does not establish under closed shrub can
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 pies }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Garrett</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>4732</RecNum><IDText>White clover expressing the coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus: field trial issues</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Confere
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nce Proceeding</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4732</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover expressing the coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus: field trial issues</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Garrett,R.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chu,P.W.G.</Authors_Primary><D
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
te_Primary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>COAT PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>MOSAIC-VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>trans
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
enic crops</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>Alfalfa mosaic virus</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>125</Start_Page><End_Page>136</End_Page><Periodical>Commercialisation of Tran
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
genic Crops: Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations</Periodical><Authors_Secondary>McLean,G.D.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Waterhouse,P.M.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Evans,G.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Gibbs,M.J.</Authors_S
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
condary><Pub_Place>Canberra</Pub_Place><Publisher>Bureau of Resource Sciences</Publisher><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops: Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 M\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 DL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Garrett & Chu 1997)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190602}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905429}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 3.3\tab Factors influencing the Weediness of White Clover{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190602}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905429}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
As mentioned above, there are a number of attributes that may contribute to making a plant weedy. Whit\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e clover has some of these weedy characteristics such as a proportion of seeds being hard and able to persist for many years in the soil, high seed output and long distance seed dispersal by animals. Other characteristics of white clover that increase its
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
potential to persist in the environment include its ability to regenerate by either seedling recruitment or by vegetative perennation through the stolon system, profuse flowering throughout spring and summer providing prolonged opportunity for pollen and 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eed dispersal, and its highly heterozygous nature due to outcrossing, which allows rapid adaptation (See Section 1.5). However, the degree to which these attributes may lead to successful establishment and persistence is highly dependent on environmental 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 onditions as well as genotype. The impact of the environment is discussed in greater detail below.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Optimum growth conditions for white clover include an annual rainfall of above 750mm, a soil pH of 5.3, sufficient levels of phosphorous, potassium, and sulp\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
hur in the soil, medium to well drained soils, and temperatures between 18 and 30}{{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 176 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 C }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4235</RecNum><IDText>Population dynamics and competition</IDT\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ext><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4235</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Population dynamics and competition</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Harris,W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>competition</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>population dynamics</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>203</Start_Page><End_Page>278</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
thors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Lane</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>4717</RecNum><IDText>The pastoral s
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
gnificance, adaptive characteristics, and grazing value of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4717</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>The pastoral signi
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
icance, adaptive characteristics, and grazing value of white clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i> L.) in dryland environments in Australia: A review</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Lane,L.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Author
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Primary>Lovett,J.V.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>biomass</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>Cattl
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>CONSERVATION</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Keywords>Major</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PERFORMANCE</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1033</Start_Page><End_Page>1046</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</Periodical><Volume>40</Volume><Issue>7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_I
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 S\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 BN><Address>\{a\}
 Agricultural Research and Advisory Station, NSW Agriculture, Glen Innes, NSW, 2370: leah.lane@agric.nsw.gov.au, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental.Agriculture.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
v><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>4925</RecNum><IDText>White clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4925</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover</Tit
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>4</End_Page><Volume>DPI-270</Volume><Publisher>NSW Agriculture</Pub
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 isher><Title_Series>Agnote</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Harris 1987; Lane et al. 2000; NSW Agriculture 2002b)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Persistence, as well as productivity and seed production, of white clover is limited by a number of f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 actors in Australia as outlined by Ayres and Reed }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Ayres</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>4731</RecNum><IDText>White Clover Improvement</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>47
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
31</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White Clover Improvement</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Reed K.F.M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Reprint>In File</Reprint><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Issue>Appendix 12</Issue><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Ayres & Reed K.F.M. 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . These factors include: limited growth in cold winters; low tolerance to s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ummer moisture stress, local ecotypes more persistent than introduced ecotypes; poor performance in soils with low fertility, high acidity or poor drainage; performance affected by competition by companion grasses and close grazing; and yield and persiste
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ce affected by pests and diseases. Summer moisture stress is the primary environmental constraint limiting the persistence and agronomic performance of white clover in Australia }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Jahufer</Author><Year>2002</Year><Rec\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Num>4913</RecNum><IDText>Identification of research to improve the efficiency of breeding strategies for white clover in Australia - a review</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4913</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Identification of
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
research to improve the efficiency of breeding strategies for white clover in Australia - a review</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Jahufer,M.Z.Z.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Cooper,M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ayres,J.F.</Authors_Primary><Au
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
hors_Primary>Bray,R.A.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>Biotechnology</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>DIVERSITY</Keywords><Keywords>EFFICIENCY</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>GENETIC DIVERSITY</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>IDENTIFICATION</Keywords><Keywords>IMPROVEMENT</Keywords><Keywords>integration</Keywords><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords>Major</Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>molecular markers</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATION</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>ROOT</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>veterinary</Keywords><Keywords>Water</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>239</Start_Page><End_Page>257</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 E\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nd_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</Periodical><Volume>53</Volume><Issue>3</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0004-9409</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Agriculture Victoria, Pastoral and Veterinary Institute, Private Bag 105, Hamilton, Vic 3300, Australia
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Agricultural Research</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Jahufer et al. 2002)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . In a study carried out over 30 years, moisture stress caused by low ra\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
infall and/or high temperature, and high stocking rate were determined to have significant detrimental effects on white clover persistence in pastures located in the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>Hutchinson</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>4912</RecNum><IDText>Effects of rainfall, moisture stress, and stocking rate on the persistence of white clover over 30 years</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4912</Ref_ID><Ti
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
le_Primary>Effects of rainfall, moisture stress, and stocking rate on the persistence of white clover over 30 years</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hutchinson,K.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>King,K.L.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wilkinson,D.R
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>AUSTRALIA</Keywords><Keywords>competition</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>LONG-TERM</Keywords><Keywords>MECHANISM</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>nature</Keywords><Keywords>Nitrogen</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>PATTERNS</Keywords><Keywords>PERSISTENCE</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Rates</Keywords><Keywords>regeneration</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>Sheep</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>Water</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1039</Start_Page><End_Page>1047</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Experimenta
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 Agriculture</Periodical><Volume>35</Volume><Issue>7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0816-1089</ISSN_ISBN><Address>CSIRO Div. Animal Prod., Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture</f></ZZ_Jo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 rnalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hutchinson et al. 1995)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 In summary, a complex interaction between the genotype/phenotype of the white clover, climatic conditions and the physical environment will determine if the white \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
clover can be successful in establishing itself and persisting in a given area.
\par }\pard\plain \s1\ql \fi-1134\li1134\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1134\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin1134\itap0 \b\caps\fs28\lang3081\langfe1033\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp1033 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190603}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905430}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 4.\tab Potential for Gene Transfer from White Clover to other Organisms{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190603}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905430}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
The possibility of genes transferring from }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  L. to o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ther organisms is addressed below. Potentially, genes could be transferred to: (1) domestically cultivated white clover and naturalised white clover populations; (2) other cultivated and naturalised }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  species; (3) other plant genera; and (4) other \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
organisms. With particular regard to the possibility of gene transfer to other plants, potential barriers must be overcome before gene flow can occur successfully. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Pre-zygotic}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 barriers include differences in floral phenology, different pollen vectors and d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ifferent mating systems such as stigmatic or stylar incompatibility systems. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Post-zygotic}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  barriers include genetic incompatibility at meiosis, selective abortion, lack of hybrid fitness and sterile or unfit backcross progeny. Even where }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 pre-zygotic}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and 
}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 pos\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t-zygotic}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  barriers do not exist, physical barriers created by geographic separation can still limit gene transfer to other plants. 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190604}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905431}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 4.1\tab Gene Transfer to Cultivated and Naturalised }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.repens{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190604}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905431}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Cross-pollination of one }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  plant to another mediated via an insect pollinator vector is the most likely means by which white clover genes could be dispersed in the environment. In Australia, the honey bee (}{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Apis mellifera}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) is the predominant pollina\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 tor of white clover. 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
As discussed above in Section 1.5, white clover has a well-developed genetic gametophytic self-incompatibility mechanism with only a small proportion of plants in a population being quite strongly self-compatible and therefore white c
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 lover is considered an obligate outbreeder. This means that white clover populations are composed of a heterogeneous mixture of highly heterozygous individuals }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Voisey</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>4718</RecNum><I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
DText>Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis genes: an ecological perspective</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4718</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Release of transgenic white clover plants ex
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 p\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ressing <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> genes: an ecological perspective</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Voisey,C.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>White,D.W.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Wigley,P.J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chilcott,C.N.
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>McGregor,P.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus</Keywords><Keywords>Bacillus thuringiensis</Keywords><Keywords>BAC
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
LLUS-THURINGIENSIS</Keywords><Keywords>biocontrol</Keywords><Keywords>Bt</Keywords><Keywords>Bt toxin</Keywords><Keywords>chemical</Keywords><Keywords>containment</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>CULTURE</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>ENCODES</Keywords><Keywords>endotoxin</Keywords><Keywords>Endotoxins</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds><Keywords>farmers</Keywords><Keywords>feeding</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords>genotype</Keywords><Keywords>germplasm</Keywords><Keywords>IDENTIFICATION</Keywords><Keywords>immunity</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>initiation</Keywords><Keywords>Insect</Keywords><Keywords>insecticidal</Keywords><Keywords>Insects</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywords>LARVAE</Keywords><Keywords>lepidopteran</Keywords><Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ethods</Keywords><Keywords>molecular</Keywords><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>pest</Keywords><Keywords>pest resistance</Keywords><Keywords>pests</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>POP
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 U\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
LATION</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>PROTEIN</Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>SEEDLINGS</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>toxin</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic crops</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>475</Start_Page><End_Page>481</End_Page><Periodical>Biocontrol Science and Technology</Periodical><Volume>4</Volume><Authors_Secondary>Hokkanen</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Deacon,J.</Authors_Secondary><P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
b_Place>ISSNNSSNSSN: 0958-3157</Pub_Place><Title_Series>Proceedings of an OECD workshop on ecological implications of transgenic crops containing Bt toxin genes</Title_Series><Address>Plant Molecular Genetics Laboratory, AgResearch, Grasslands Research Ce
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
tre, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Biocontrol Science and Technology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Voisey et al. 1994)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  highlighting the high degree\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  of crossing that occurs between individual white clover plants.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Viable seed and fertile progeny would be produced from cross-pollination of white clover plants, irrespective of whether the white clover plants are in the semi-cultivated environment of a pa\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
sture and whether they are present in other areas such as roadsides or native grasslands.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Gene flow between white clover populations is limited by geographic distance as determined by bee foraging ranges. As discussed in Section 1.5.2, when abundant nectar\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 is available, the foraging range of bees is quite small and successful cross-pollination occurs only over short distances. However, if food is scarce then bees may travel many kilometres increasing the likelihood of long distance cross-pollination. 

\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190605}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905432}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 4.2\tab Gene Transfer to other }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  Species{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190605}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905432}

\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 The species with which }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  is most likely to hybridise and exchange genes are those belonging to the genus }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  species are widely distrib\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 uted throughout more temperate and subtropical parts of Australia and many clover species are commonly sown in pastures, such as subterranean clover (}{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. subterraneum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), arrowleaf clover (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.\~vesiculosum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), red clover (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. pratense}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ), persian clover (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. resupina\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 tum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) and strawberry clover (}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. fragiferum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ) 
}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture and Grassland Society of NSW Inc</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>5321</RecNum><IDText>Pasture grass, legume and herb varieties used in NSW 2002-2003</IDTex\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5321</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Pasture grass, legume and herb varieties used in NSW 2002-2003</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Agriculture and Grassland Society of NSW Inc</Authors_Primary><Date_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rimary>2001</Date_Primary><Keywords>Pasture</Keywords><Keywords>variety</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>36</End_Page><Pub_Place>Dubbo,</Pub_Place><Publisher>NSW Agriculture</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformI
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 D\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (NSW Agriculture and Grassland Society of NSW Inc 2001)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 However, well-demonstrated genetic differences, such as dissimilar karyotypes (ie. different chromosome number and dissimilar linear arrangement of genes in homologous chro\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
mosomes), limit gene transfer to other species of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , and therefore crosses generally only occur in nature between different }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  cultivars/genotypes }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Chen</Author><Year>1971</Year><RecNum>5307</RecNum><I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
DText>Seed development following the mating of Trifolium repens x Trifolium uniflorum</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5307</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Seed development following the mating of <i>Trifolium repens</i> x <i>Tri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
olium uniflorum</i></Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chen,C.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gibson,P.B.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1971</Date_Primary><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>667<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Start_Page><End_Page>672</End_Page><Periodical>Crop Science</Periodical><Volume>11</Volume><Issue>5</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0011 183X</ISSN_ISBN><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Crop Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Crop Sci</f>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Williams</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4237</RecNum><IDText>White clover taxonomy and biosystematics</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ef_ID>4237</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover taxonomy and biosystematics</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>Taxonomy</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Repr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nt><Start_Page>323</Start_Page><End_Page>342</End_Page><Title_Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB Int
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 rnational</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Chen & Gibson 1971; Williams 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. The cross-incompatibility of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  with related species is due to both pre- and post-fertilisation barriers. Failure to form viable seed\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s from interspecific crosses may be attributed to the inability of the pollen to germinate on a foreign stigma, the inability of the pollen tubes to grow normally in a foreign style, failure of fertilisation, or seed abortion. It has been shown that polle
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  tube germination normally occurs in crosses between }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and many other }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  species, however pollen tube growth is slow, and swelling, bursting, coiling and/or misdirected growth is a common occurrence }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>C
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
hen</Author><Year>1972</Year><RecNum>5286</RecNum><IDText>Barriers to hybridization of Trifolium repens with related species</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5286</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Barriers to hybridization of <i>Tr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
folium repens</i> with related species</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chen,C.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gibson,P.B.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1972</Date_Primary><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENC
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>germination</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDIZATION</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>STA</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>381</Start_Page><End_Page>389</End_Page><Periodical>Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology.</Periodical><Volume>14</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><Address>SC Agric Exp Sta, Clemson, U
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 S\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 A</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Chen & Gibson 1972)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Success in producing hybrids can also be dependent on which \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
species acts as the pollen donor as well as which cultivars are used (see below for examples).
\par }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  species with similar karyotypes to }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  have the greatest chance of forming hybrids }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Chen</Author><Year>19\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
72</Year><RecNum>5286</RecNum><IDText>Barriers to hybridization of Trifolium repens with related species</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5286</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Barriers to hybridization of <i>Trifolium repens</i> w
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
th related species</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chen,C.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gibson,P.B.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1972</Date_Primary><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>germination</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDIZATION</Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>STA</Keywords><Keywords>T
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>381</Start_Page><End_Page>389</End_Page><Periodical>Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology.</Periodical><Volume>14</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><Address>SC Agric Exp Sta, Clemson, USA</Address><ZZ_Jour
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 alStdAbbrev><f name="System">Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Chen & Gibson 1972)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  has been crossed with }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. nigrescens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. uniflorum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.occidentale}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 sthmocarpum}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. argutum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , and }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. ambiguum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 but most hybrids were generated through tissue culture methods and many were sterile or showed abnormal development as discussed below.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White clover can cross naturally with }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. nigrescens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (ball clover) albeit with s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ome difficulties and many hybrids formed have sterile pollen, have chlorophyll deficiencies or produce non-viable seeds }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Chen</Author><Year>1972</Year><RecNum>5286</RecNum><IDText>Barriers to hybridization of Trifoli\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
um repens with related species</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5286</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Barriers to hybridization of <i>Trifolium repens</i> with related species</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chen,C.C.</Authors_Pri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ary><Authors_Primary>Gibson,P.B.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1972</Date_Primary><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>germination</Keywords><Keywords>GROWTH</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDIZATION
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>OVULE</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>pollination</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keywords>STA</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>381</Start_Page><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 E\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nd_Page>389</End_Page><Periodical>Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology.</Periodical><Volume>14</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><Address>SC Agric Exp Sta, Clemson, USA</Address><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology.</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Marshall</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>5372</RecNum><IDText>Reproductive characters of interspecific hybrids between Trifolium repens L. and T.nigrescens Viv</IDText><MDL
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5372</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Reproductive characters of interspecific hybrids between<i> Trifolium repens L.</i> and <i>T.nigrescen</i>s Viv</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.H.</Authors_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y><Authors_Primary>Michael-Yeates,T.P.T</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Aluka,P</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Meredith,M</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>interspecific hybrids</Keywords><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>136</Start_Page><End_Page>145</End_Page><Periodical>Heredity</Periodical><Volume>74</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Heredity</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cit
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Cite><Author>Williams</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4237</RecNum><IDText>White clover taxonomy and biosystematics</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4237</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover taxonomy and bios
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
stematics</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>Taxonomy</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>323</Start_Page><End_Page>342</End_Page><Title_Se
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 c\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cit
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Chen & Gibson 1972; Marshall et al. 1995; Williams 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Successful hybridisatio has been greatest when }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  is used as the female parent plant }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hovin</Auth\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
or><Year>1962</Year><RecNum>5342</RecNum><IDText>Interspecific hybridization between Trifolium repens L. and T. nigrescens Viv. and analysis of hybrid meiosis</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5342</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nterspecific hybridization between <i>Trifolium repens</i> L. and <i>T. nigrescens</i> Viv. and analysis of hybrid meiosis</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hovin,A.W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1962</Date_Primary><Keywords>Interspecific hybridization</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 K\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
eywords><Keywords>HYBRIDIZATION</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>analysis</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>MEIOSIS</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>251</Start_Page><End_Page>254</End_Page><Periodical>Crop Scie
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ce</Periodical><Volume>2</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Crop Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Crop Sci</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hovin 1962)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . The formation \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 of hybrids is also highly dependent on the cultivar of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. nigrescens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 used in the cross }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hovin</Author><Year>1962</Year><RecNum>5342</RecNum><IDText>Interspecific hybridization between Trifolium repens L. and T. nigre
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
scens Viv. and analysis of hybrid meiosis</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5342</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Interspecific hybridization between <i>Trifolium repens</i> L. and <i>T. nigrescens</i> Viv. and analysis of hybrid m
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
iosis</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hovin,A.W.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1962</Date_Primary><Keywords>Interspecific hybridization</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDIZATION</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>analysis</Keywords><Keywords>hybri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Keywords><Keywords>MEIOSIS</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>251</Start_Page><End_Page>254</End_Page><Periodical>Crop Science</Periodical><Volume>2</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Crop Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbb
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ev><f name="System">Crop Sci</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hovin 1962)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. In more recently published work, embryo culture and colchicine induced chromosome doubling was required to produce fertile hybrids }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Hussain</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>5288</RecNum><IDText>Development of a ploidy series from a single interspecific Trifolium repens L. x T. nigrescens Viv. F1 hybrid</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 J\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ournal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5288</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Development of a ploidy series from a single interspecific <i>Trifolium repens</i> L. x <i>T. nigrescens</i> Viv. F1 hybrid</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hussain,S.W.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Williams,W.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Woodfield,D.R.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Hampton,J.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997</Date_Primary><Keywords>aneuploid</Keywords><Keywords>Backcross progenies</Keywords><Keywords>CHROMOSOME</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>Exchange</Keywords><Keywords>Female</Keywords><Keywords>FERTILE</Keywords><Keywords>Fertility</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDS</Keywords><Keywords>In Vitro</Keywords><Keywords>IN-VITRO</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>Ploidies</Keywords><Keywords>PLOIDY</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>PROGENIES</Keywords><Keywords>PROGENY</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Seeds</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>sterile</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>VITRO</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>821</Start_Page><End_Page>831</End_Page><Periodical>Theoretical and Applied Genetics</Periodical><Volume>9
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 4\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Volume><Issue>6/7</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0040-5752</ISSN_ISBN><Address>AgResearch Grasslands, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Theoretical and Applied Genetics</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Hussain et al. 1997)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Hybrids of white clover and }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. ambiguum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (Caucasian or kura clover) have been produced by embryo culture }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Meredith</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>5369</RecN\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
um><IDText>Trifolium ambiguum as a source of variation in the breeding of white clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5369</Ref_ID><Title_Primary><i>Trifolium ambiguum</i> as a source of variation in the breeding of wh
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
te clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Meredith,M.R</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Michael-Yeates,T.P.T</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Ougham,H.J</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Thomas,H</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>185</Start_Page><End_Page>191</End_Page><Periodical>Euphytica</Periodical><Volume>8
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Euphytica</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Williams</Author><Year>1981</Year><RecNum>5368</RecNum><IDText>A partially fertile hybrid between Trifolium repens and T.amb
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
guum</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5368</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>A partially fertile hybrid between <i>Trifolium repens</i> and <i>T.ambiguum</i></Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,E.G.</Authors_Primary><Authors_P
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
imary>Verry,I.M</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1981</Date_Primary><Keywords>FERTILE</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>7</End_Page><Periodical>New Zealand Journa
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  of Botany</Periodical><Volume>19</Volume><Issue>1-7</Issue><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">New Zealand Journal of Botany</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Meredith et al. 1995; Williams & Verry 1981)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and subseq\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 uent backcrosses of the hybrids to the parent species have been successful }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Abberton</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>5277</RecNum><IDText>Quality characteristics of backcross hybrids between Trifolium repens and Tri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
folium ambiguum</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5277</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Quality characteristics of backcross hybrids between <i>Trifolium repens</i> and <i>Trifolium ambiguum</i></Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Abbe
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ton,M.T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Marshall,A.H.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Michaelson-Yeates,T.-P.T.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,T.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Rhodes,I.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Prim
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ry><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>breeding</Keywords><Keywords>digestibility</Keywords><Keywords>forage</Keywords><Keywords>GENERATION</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDS</Keywords><Keywords>LINE</Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds><Keywords>Nitrogen</Keywords><Keywords>QUALITY</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>Stress</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>Water</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><R
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
print>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>75</Start_Page><End_Page>80</End_Page><Periodical>Euphytica</Periodical><Volume>127</Volume><Issue>1</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0014-2336</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Legume Breeding Group, Institute of Grassland and Environmental Researc
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 h\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
, Plas Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, SY23 3EB, UK</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Euphytica</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Anderson</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>5279</RecNum><IDText>Cytology and fert
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
lity of the interspecific hybrid Trifolium ambiguum x T. repens and backcross populations</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5279</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Cytology and fertility of the interspecific hybrid <i>Trifolium ambig
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
um</i> x <i>T. repens</i> and backcross populations</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Anderson,J.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Taylor,N.L.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,E.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1991</Date_Primary><Keywords>agr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nomy</Keywords><Keywords>aneuploid</Keywords><Keywords>as</Keywords><Keywords>Backcross progenies</Keywords><Keywords>CHROMOSOME</Keywords><Keywords>Chromosomes</Keywords><Keywords>cytology</Keywords><Keywords>Female</Keywords><Keywords>Fertility</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>HIGH-FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDIZATION</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDS</Keywords><Keywords>Intersp
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
cific hybridization</Keywords><Keywords>interspecific hybrids</Keywords><Keywords>INTROGRESSION</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>Ploidies</Keywords><Keywords>PLOIDY</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>POP
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 U\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
LATION</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>PROGENIES</Keywords><Keywords>PROGENY</Keywords><Keywords>recombination</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>seedling</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>virus resistance</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>of</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>683</Start_Page><End_Page>687</End_Page><Periodical>Crop Science</Periodical><Volume>31</Volum
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Issue>3</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0011-183X</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Department of Agronomy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Crop Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Crop Sci</f
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 </ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Abberton et al. 2002; Anderson et al. 1991)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. However, no hybrids of these two species have been found in nature.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 White clover has been artificially crossed with }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. occidentale}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Western clover) but it was most successful when an induced tetraploid of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. occidentale}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  was used }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Gibson</Author><Year>1969</Year><RecNum>5494</RecNum><IDText>Hybridization of Trifolium occidentale with two other sp\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ecies of clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5494</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Hybridization of <i>Trifolium occidentale</i> with two other species of clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gibson,P.B.</Authors_Primary><Au
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
hors_Primary>Reinhart,G</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1969</Date_Primary><Keywords>HYBRIDIZATION</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>93</Start_Page><End_Page>96</End_Page><Periodical>Th
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  Journal of Heredity</Periodical><Volume>60</Volume><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">The Journal of Heredity</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Gibson & Reinhart 1969)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . In another study,}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 initial }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens }{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 x }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. occ\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 identale}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  hybrids produced using embryo culture have produced fertile F2 progeny }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Pederson</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>4920</RecNum><IDText>Resistance to viruses in Trifolium interspecific hybrids related to whit\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4920</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Resistance to viruses in <i>Trifolium</i> interspecific hybrids related to white clover</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Pederson,G.A.</Authors_Primary
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Authors_Primary>McLaughlin,M.R.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1989</Date_Primary><Keywords>cultivar</Keywords><Keywords>cultivars</Keywords><Keywords>FERTILE</Keywords><Keywords>forage</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDS</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>interspecific hybrids</Keywords><Keywords>MOSAIC-VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>peanut</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATION</Keywords><Keywords>POPULATIONS</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Keywords>re
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
istance</Keywords><Keywords>STATE</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>virus resistance</Keywords><Keywords>Viruses</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Keywords>clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Sta
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t_Page>997</Start_Page><End_Page>999</End_Page><Periodical>Plant Disease</Periodical><Volume>73</Volume><Issue>12</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0191-2917</ISSN_ISBN><Address>USDA, ARS, CSRL, Forage Research Unit, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA</Address><ZZ_JournalF
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ll><f name="System">Plant Disease</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Pederson & McLaughlin 1989)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Cross pollination between }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  with }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. uniflorum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 (one flower clover) have not produced viable seed and/or viab\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 le hybrids }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Chen</Author><Year>1971</Year><RecNum>5307</RecNum><IDText>Seed development following the mating of Trifolium repens x Trifolium uniflorum</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ID>5307</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Seed development following the mating of <i>Trifolium repens</i> x <i>Trifolium uniflorum</i></Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Chen,C.C.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gibson,P.B.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1971</Date_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rimary><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>Trifolium</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>667</Start_Page><End_Page>672</End_Page><Periodical>Crop Science</Periodical><Volume>11</Volume><Issue>5</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0011 183X</ISSN_ISBN><ZZ_Journal
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 F\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ull><f name="System">Crop Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Crop Sci</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Pandey</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4919</RecNum><IDText>Interspec
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
fic hybridisation between Trifolium repens and T. uniflorum</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4919</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Interspecific hybridisation between <i>Trifolium repens</i> and <i>T. uniflorum</i></Title_Primary>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Authors_Primary>Pandey,K.K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Grant,J.E.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,E.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>CHROMOSOME</Keywords><Keywords>Chromosomes</Keywords><Keywords>CULTURE</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>embryo culture</Keywords><Keywords>Female</Keywords><Keywords>FERTILE</Keywords><Keywords>Fertility</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>hybridisation</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDS</Keywords><Keywords>IN-VIVO</Keywords><Keywords>LA
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 R\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
VAE</Keywords><Keywords>Male</Keywords><Keywords>MEIOSIS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>ROOT</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>171</Start_Page><End_Page>182</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Botany</Periodical><Volume>35</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0067-1924</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Grasslands Div, DSIR, Palmerston North, New Zeala
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Australian Journal of Botany</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
(Chen & Gibson 1971; Pandey et al. 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . Partially fertile hybrids have been produced by embryo culture f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 rom crosses of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 with }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. uniflorum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , again using }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  as the female parent plant }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Pandey</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4919</RecNum><IDText>Interspecific hybridisation between Trifolium repens and T. u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
niflorum</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4919</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Interspecific hybridisation between <i>Trifolium repens</i> and <i>T. uniflorum</i></Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Pandey,K.K.</Authors_Primary><Auth
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rs_Primary>Grant,J.E.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,E.G.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>CHROMOSOME</Keywords><Keywords>Chromosomes</Keywords><Keywords>CULTURE</Keywords><Keywords>embryo culture</Keywords><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Female</Keywords><Keywords>FERTILE</Keywords><Keywords>Fertility</Keywords><Keywords>hybrid</Keywords><Keywords>hybridisation</Keywords><Keywords>HYBRIDS</Keywords><Keywords>IN-VIVO</Keywords><Keywords>LARVAE</Keywords><Keywords>Male</Keywords><Keywords>M
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 E\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
IOSIS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>POLLEN</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>ROOT</Keywords><Keywords>seed</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>171</Start_Pa
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
e><End_Page>182</End_Page><Periodical>Australian Journal of Botany</Periodical><Volume>35</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0067-1924</ISSN_ISBN><Address>Grasslands Div, DSIR, Palmerston North, New Zealand</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Austra
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ian Journal of Botany</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Pandey et al. 1987)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 There have been numerous unsuccessful attempts to hybridise }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T .repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  with many other }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 species, even when embryo rescue metho\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ds were used. These include species commonly found in Australia such as }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. arvense}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (hare\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0 
s foot clover), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. fragiferum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (strawberry clover), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. hirtum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (rose clover), }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. scabrum}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (rough clover) and }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. subterraneum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  (subterranean clover) }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Ref
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
man><Cite><Author>Williams</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>4237</RecNum><IDText>White clover taxonomy and biosystematics</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Book Chapter"><Ref_Type>Book Chapter</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>4237</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>White clover taxonomy and b
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 i\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
osystematics</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1987</Date_Primary><Keywords>Taxonomy</Keywords><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>323</Start_Page><End_Page>342</End_Page><Title
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 _\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Secondary>White Clover</Title_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Baker,M.J.</Authors_Secondary><Authors_Secondary>Williams,W.M.</Authors_Secondary><Pub_Place>Wallingford</Pub_Place><Publisher>CAB International</Publisher><ZZ_WorkformID>3</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 C\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Williams 1987b)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Of the species that can form viable hybrids, T}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . nigrescens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. uniflorum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. ambiguum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  have been found at one or more sites in Australia (Australia\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0 s Virtual Herbarium) with }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. ambiguum}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  being a relative common clover in \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 pastures of NSW }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>NSW Agriculture</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>5324</RecNum><IDText>Caucasian clover</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Report"><Ref_Type>Report</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>5324</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Caucasian clover</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>NSW Agriculture</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2002</Date_Primary><Keywords>white clover</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1</Start_Page><End_Page>3</End_Page><Volume>DPI-390</Volume><Publisher>NSW Agriculture<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Publisher><Title_Series>Agnote</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>24</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (NSW Agriculture 2002a)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
. However, due to the difficulties of forming hybrids with these species, it is extremely unlikely that }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  would form viabl\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e competitive hybrids with other }
{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  species in nature. 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190606}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905433}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section 4.3\tab Gene Transfer to other Plants{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190606}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905433}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Gene transfer to unrelated plant species is highly improbable because of well documented pre- and post-\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
zygotic genetic incompatibility barriers, as discussed above. The difficulties with which white clover can hybridise with its closest relatives, and the infertility of such hybrids when they are formed, illustrates the reproductive isolation of }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.\~repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 rom other plant groups. To date, there have been no reports of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.}{\~}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 repens}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  forming hybrids with plants not of the }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  genus. Thus, the likelihood of gene transfer between }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 T.\~repens}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and other plant species is negligible. 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc64190607}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc65905434}\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Section\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  4.4\tab Gene Transfer to other Organisms{\*\bkmkend _Toc64190607}{\*\bkmkend _Toc65905434}
\par }\pard\plain \s21\ql \li0\ri0\sb120\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
The only by which genes could be transferred from white clover organisms other than plants is by horizontal gene transfer. Such transfers have not been demonstrated under natural conditions }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADD
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
IN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Nielsen</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>1369</RecNum><IDText>Evaluation of possible horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to the soil bacterium Acinobactor calcoaceticus BD 413</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 "\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>1369</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Evaluation of possible horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to the soil bacterium <i>Acinobactor calcoaceticus </i>BD 413</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Nielsen,K.M.</Authors_Pri
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ary><Authors_Primary>Gebhard,F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Smalla,K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Bones,A.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>van Elsas,J.D.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1997=October</Date_Primary><Keywords>cottondb</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>GENE-TRANSFER</Keywords><Keywords>gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>horizontal gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>natural transformation</Keywords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>soil bacterium</Keywords><Keywords>Bacteria</Keywords><Keywords>transformation frequency
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>plasmid</Keywords><Keywords>PLASMID DNA</Keywords><Keywords>Kanamycin</Keywords><Keywords>Kanamycin Resistance</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 G\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ENE</Keywords><Keywords>CELLS</Keywords><Keywords>CELL</Keywords><Keywords>competence</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>815</Start_Page><End_Page>821</End_Page><Periodical>Theoretical and Applied Genetics</Periodical><Volume>95</Volume><Issu
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>5-6</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0040-5752</ISSN_ISBN><Availability>DIR 007</Availability><Address>Bones,A.M.: Dep. Bot., Norwegian Univ. Sci. Technol., N-7005 Trondheim, Norway</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Theoretical and Applied Genetics</f></ZZ_Jour
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
alFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Nielsen</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>2445</RecNum><IDText>Horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to terrestrial bacteria - a rare event?</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Abstract"><Ref_T
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pe>Abstract</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>2445</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to terrestrial bacteria - a rare event?</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Nielsen,K.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Bones,A.M.</Authors_Primary><A
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
thors_Primary>Smalla,K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>van Elsas,J.D.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998=June</Date_Primary><Keywords>horizontal gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>GENE-TRANSFER
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Bacteria</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified</Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Keywords>genetically modified plant</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>risk assessment</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>MICROORGANISMS</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>biosafety</Keywords><Keywords>PATHWAY</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCES</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCE</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords><Keywords>marker genes</Keywords><Keywords>HOMOLOGOUS RECO
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 M\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
BINATION</Keywords><Keywords>recombination</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords><Keywords>CONSEQUENCES</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>79</Sta
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
t_Page><End_Page>103</End_Page><Periodical>FEMS Microbiology Reviews</Periodical><Volume>22</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><Address>UNIGEN, Center for Molecular Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7005 Trondheim, Norway</Address><ZZ_JournalF
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 u\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ll><f name="System">FEMS Microbiology Reviews</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">FEMS Microbiol.Rev.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>4</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Syvanen</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>764</R
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
cNum><IDText>In search of horizontal gene transfer</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>764</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>In search of horizontal gene transfer</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Syvanen,M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y>1999/9</Date_Primary><Keywords>agriculture</Keywords><Keywords>Animal</Keywords><Keywords>antibiotic</Keywords><Keywords>antibiotic resistance</Keywords><Keywords>Bacteria</Keywords><Keywords>Biotechnology</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>Dru
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 g\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 Resistance,Microbial</Keywords><Keywords>Female</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>genetic transformation</Keywords><Keywords>genetics</Keywords><Keywords>genetransferdb</Keywords><Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords>horizontal gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>Human</Keywords><Keywords>HUMANS</Keywords><Keywords>immunology</Keywords><Keywords>Kanamycin</Keywords><Keywords>LYMPHOCYTES</Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords><Keywords>marker genes</Keywords><Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Mice</Keywords><Keywords>Microbiology</Keywords><Keywords>Neomycin</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>RESISTANCE GENE</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>Species Specificity</Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>Transformation,Genetic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Reprint>Not in File</Reprint><Start_Page>833</Start_Page><Periodical>Nature Biotechnology</Periodical
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Volume>17</Volume><Issue>9</Issue><Availability>DIR 007</Availability><Address>Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California School of Medicine, Davis, CA 95616, USA. E-mail: syvanen@ucdavis.edu</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="Sys
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 em">Nature Biotechnology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Nat.Biotechnol.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Nielsen et al. 1997; Nielsen et al. 1998; Syvanen 1999)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . and deliberate at\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 tempts to induce them have so far failed }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Coghlan</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>1772</RecNum><IDText>So far so good: for the moment, the gene genie is staying in its bottle.</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Ty
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
pe>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>1772</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>So far so good: for the moment, the gene genie is staying in its bottle.</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Coghlan,A.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>2000/3/25</Date_Primary><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><R
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
print>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>4</Start_Page><Periodical>New Scientist</Periodical><Volume>2231</Volume><Issue>March</Issue><Availability>DIR 007&#xA;New Scientist magazine is also in Journal cupboard</Availability><Web_URL><u>www.newscientist.com/new
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/news.jsp?id=ns223136</u></Web_URL><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">New Scientist</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Schl&#xFC;ter</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>515</RecNum><IDText>Horizontal gene transfer fr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
m a transgenic potato line to a bacterial pathogen (Erwinia chrysanthemi) occurs - if at all - at an extremely low frequency</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>515</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Horizontal gene transfer from a tra
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
sgenic potato line to a bacterial pathogen (<i>Erwinia chrysanthemi</i>) occurs - if at all - at an extremely low frequency</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Schl&#xFC;ter,K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>F&#xFC;tterer,J.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Prima
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
y>Potrykus,I.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1995</Date_Primary><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>cottondb</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 G\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ENE-TRANSFER</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>SYSTEM</Keywords><Keywords>SOLANUM-TUBEROSUM</Keywords><Keywords>BETA-LACTAMASE</Keywords><Keywords>beta-lactamase gene</Keywords><Keywords>ORIGIN</Keywords><Keywords>REPLICATION</Keywords><Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s>horizontal gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>INFECTION</Keywords><Keywords>control</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>transfer</Keywords><Keywords>Tra
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
sgenic potato</Keywords><Keywords>potato</Keywords><Keywords>LINE</Keywords><Keywords>Pathogen</Keywords><Keywords>Erwinia</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1094</Start_Page><End_Page>1098</End_Page><Periodical>Bio/Technology</Periodical><Vo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ume>13</Volume><Issue>10</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0733-222X</ISSN_ISBN><Availability>DIR 007</Availability><Address>Institute of Plant Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Cent., LFW E-32.1, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland.</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 f\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  name="System">Bio/Technology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Biotechnology.(N.Y).</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}
}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 \hich\f0 (Coghlan 2000; Schl\'fc\loch\f0 ter et al. 1995)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . 
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Transfer of plant DNA to b\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 acteria has been demonstrated under highly artificial laboratory conditions }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Gebhard</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>740</RecNum><IDText>Transformation of Acinetobacter sp. strain BD413 by transgenic sugar beet DNA<\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
/IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>740</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Transformation of <i>Acinetobacter</i> sp. strain BD413 by transgenic sugar beet DNA</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Gebhard,F.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primar
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
>Smalla,K.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998=April</Date_Primary><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>STRAIN</Keywords><Keywords>sugar beet</Keywords><Keywords>SUGAR-BEET</Keywords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>genetransferdb</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION</Keywords><Keywords>recombination</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywords>plasmid</Keywords><Keywords>PLASMID DNA</Keyword
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>analysis</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1550</Start_Page><End_Page>1554</End_Page><Periodical>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</Periodical><Volume>64</Volume><Issue>4</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0099-2240</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 I\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
SSN_ISBN><Availability>DIR 007</Availability><Address>Biologische Bundesanstalt Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Inst. Biochemie Pflanzenvirologie Messeweg 11-12, D-38104 Braunschweig, Germany</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Applied and Environmental 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 M\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
icrobiology</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Appl.Environ.Microbiol.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Mercer</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>1371</RecNum><IDText>Fate of free DNA
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
and transformation of the oral bacterium Streptococcus gordonii DL1 by plasmid DNA in human saliva</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>1371</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Fate of free DNA and transformation of the oral bacterium <i
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Streptococcus gordonii </i>DL1 by plasmid DNA in human saliva</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Mercer,D.K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Scott,K.P.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Bruce-Johnson,W.A.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Glover,L.A.</Auth
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rs_Primary><Authors_Primary>Flint,H.J.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999=January</Date_Primary><Keywords>cottondb</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>FATE</Keywords><Keywords>Human</Keywords><Keywords>plasmid</Keywords><Keywords>PLASMID DNA</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>transformation</Keywords><Keywords>competitive PCR</Keywords><Keywords>PCR</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCE</Keywords><Keywords>recombinant</Keywords><Keywords>degradation</Keywords><Keywords>resistance</Keywords><Keywords>CELLS</Keywords><Keyw
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rds>CELL</Keywords><Keywords>competence</Keywords><Keywords>EFFICIENCY</Keywords><Keywords>Bacteria</Keywords><Keywords>food</Keywords><Keywords>transform</Keywords><Keywords>oral</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Ke
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
words>IN-VIVO</Keywords><Keywords>Research</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>6</Start_Page><End_Page>10</End_Page><Periodical>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</Periodical><Volume>65</Volume><Issue>1</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0099-2240</ISSN_IS
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 B\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
N><Availability>DIR 007</Availability><Address>Mercer,D.K.: Rowett Research Institute, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB21 9SB, UK.  E-mail: d.mercer@rri.sari.ac.uk</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Applied and Environmental Microbiology</f><
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Appl.Environ.Microbiol.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Nielsen</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>2445</RecNum><IDText>Horizontal gene transfer from tr
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nsgenic plants to terrestrial bacteria - a rare event?</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Abstract"><Ref_Type>Abstract</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>2445</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to terrestrial bacteria - a rare event?</Title_Primary
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Authors_Primary>Nielsen,K.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Bones,A.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Smalla,K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>van Elsas,J.D.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998=June</Date_Primary><Keywords>horizontal gene transf
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
r</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>GENE-TRANSFER</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Bacteria</Keywords
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
<Keywords>FIELD</Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified plant</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>risk assessment</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords><Keywords>Genes</Keywords><Keywords>MICROORGANISMS</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>biosafety</Keywords><Keywords>PATHWAY</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCES</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCE</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords><Keywords>marker</Keywords><Keywords>marker genes</Keywords><Keywords>HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION</Keywords><Keywords>recombination</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIR
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 O\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
NMENT</Keywords><Keywords>CONSEQUENCES</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>79</Start_Page><End_Page>103</End_Page><Periodical>FEMS Microbiology Reviews</Periodical><Volume>22</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><Address>UNIGEN, Center for Molecular Biolog
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 y\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7005 Trondheim, Norway</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">FEMS Microbiology Reviews</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">FEMS Microbiol.Rev.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_Workfor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ID>4</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Gebhard & Smalla 1998; Mercer et al. 1999; Nielsen et al. 1998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
, but even then only at a very low frequency. Phylogenetic comparison of the sequences of plant and bacterial genes suggests that horizontal gene t\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ransfer from plants to bacteria during evolutionary history has been extremely rare, if occurring at all }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Doolittle</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>737</RecNum><IDText>Lateral genomics</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>737</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Lateral genomics</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Doolittle,W.F.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999/12</Date_Primary><Keywords>EVOLUTION</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene tra
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 n\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
sfer</Keywords><Keywords>GENE-TRANSFER</Keywords><Keywords>GENOME</Keywords><Keywords>ORGANISMS</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCE</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCES</Keywords><Keywords>genetransferdb</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>5</Start_Page><En
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
_Page>8</End_Page><Periodical>Trends in Cell Biology</Periodical><Volume>9</Volume><Issue>12</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0962-8924</ISSN_ISBN><Availability>DIR 007</Availability><Address>Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 B\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
iology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4H7, Canada. &#xA;E-Mail: ford@is.dal.ca.</Address><Web_URL>http://journals.bmn.com/journals/list/latest? jcode =tcb. </Web_URL><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Trends in Cell Biology</f></ZZ_Journal
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 F\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">Trends Cell Biol.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite><Cite><Author>Nielsen</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>2445</RecNum><IDText>Horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants t
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 terrestrial bacteria - a rare event?</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Abstract"><Ref_Type>Abstract</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>2445</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to terrestrial bacteria - a rare event?</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 >\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Nielsen,K.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Bones,A.M.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Smalla,K.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>van Elsas,J.D.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1998=June</Date_Primary><Keywords>horizontal gene transfer</Keywords><Key
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 w\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene transfer</Keywords><Keywords>GENE-TRANSFER</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>Bacteria</Keywords><Keywords>FIELD<
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 /\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords><Keywords>RELEASE</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified</Keywords><Keywords>genetically modified plant</Keywords><Keywords>risk</Keywords><Keywords>risk assessment</Keywords><Keywords>ecological</Keywords><Keywords>IMPACT</Keywords><Keywords>G
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
nes</Keywords><Keywords>MICROORGANISMS</Keywords><Keywords>soil</Keywords><Keywords>biosafety</Keywords><Keywords>PATHWAY</Keywords><Keywords>Dna</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCES</Keywords><Keywords>SEQUENCE</Keywords><Keywords>Laboratories</Keywords><Keywor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 d\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
s>marker</Keywords><Keywords>marker genes</Keywords><Keywords>HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION</Keywords><Keywords>recombination</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCIES</Keywords><Keywords>FREQUENCY</Keywords><Keywords>SELECTION</Keywords><Keywords>ENVIRONMENT</Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords>CONSEQUENCES</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>79</Start_Page><End_Page>103</End_Page><Periodical>FEMS Microbiology Reviews</Periodical><Volume>22</Volume><Issue>2</Issue><Address>UNIGEN, Center for Molecular Biology, Norwegian Univ
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rsity of Science and Technology, 7005 Trondheim, Norway</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">FEMS Microbiology Reviews</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><f name="System">FEMS Microbiol.Rev.</f></ZZ_JournalStdAbbrev><ZZ_WorkformID>4</ZZ_Workfor
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 m\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Doolittle 1999; Nielsen et al. 1998)}}}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Recombination between viral genomes and plant DNA has only been observed at very low levels, and only between homologous sequences under conditions of selective pressure, eg. regeneration o\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
f infectious virus by complementation of a defective virus by viral sequences introduced into a genetically modified plant genome }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
 ADDIN REFMGR.CITE <Refman><Cite><Author>Greene</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>1145</RecNum><IDText>Recombination between vi\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ral RNA and transgenic plant transcripts</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Journal"><Ref_Type>Journal</Ref_Type><Ref_ID>1145</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Recombination between viral RNA and transgenic plant transcripts</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Greene,A.E.</Authors_
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 P\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
rimary><Authors_Primary>Allison,R.F.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1994</Date_Primary><Keywords>recombination</Keywords><Keywords>RNA</Keywords><Keywords>plant</Keywords><Keywords>PLANTS</Keywords><Keywords>VIRUS</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywo
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ds>MUTANT</Keywords><Keywords>CELLS</Keywords><Keywords>CELL</Keywords><Keywords>INFECTIONS</Keywords><Keywords>INFECTION</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic plants</Keywords><Keywords>LINE</Keywords><Keywords>analysis</Keywords>
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 <\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Keywords>HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>1423</Start_Page><End_Page>1425</End_Page><Periodical>Science</Periodical><Volume>263</Volume><Issue>5152</Issue><ISSN_ISBN>0036-8075</ISSN_ISBN><Availability>DIR 007</Avail
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 a\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
bility><Address>Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Plant Biology Building, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1312, USA</Address><ZZ_JournalFull><f name="System">Science</f></ZZ_JournalFull><ZZ_WorkformID>1</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cit
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Cite><Author>Teycheney</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>1374</RecNum><IDText>Gene flow from virus-resistant transgenic crops to wild relatives or to infecting viruses</IDText><MDL Ref_Type="Conference Proceeding"><Ref_Type>Conference Proceeding</Ref_Typ
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
><Ref_ID>1374</Ref_ID><Title_Primary>Gene flow from virus-resistant transgenic crops to wild relatives or to infecting viruses</Title_Primary><Authors_Primary>Teycheney,P.Y.</Authors_Primary><Authors_Primary>Tepfer,M.</Authors_Primary><Date_Primary>1999</
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 D\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ate_Primary><Keywords>cottondb</Keywords><Keywords>CROP</Keywords><Keywords>crops</Keywords><Keywords>FLOW</Keywords><Keywords>GENE</Keywords><Keywords>gene flow</Keywords><Keywords>transgenic</Keywords><Keywords>WILD</Keywords><Keywords>WILD RELATIVES</K
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 e\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
ywords><Keywords>crop protection</Keywords><Keywords>protection</Keywords><Reprint>In File</Reprint><Start_Page>191</Start_Page><End_Page>196</End_Page><Title_Series>Gene flow and agriculture: Relevance for transgenic crops, British Crop Protection Counci
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 l\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  Symposium Proceedings No. 72</Title_Series><ZZ_WorkformID>12</ZZ_WorkformID></MDL></Cite></Refman>}}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 (Greene & Allison 1994; Teycheney & Tepfer 1999)}}}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 .
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Thus, gene transfer from white clover to organisms other than plants is extremely unlikely. A more detai\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
led review of horizontal gene transfer from plants to other organisms is provided in the risk assessment and risk management plan that was prepared in relation to application DIR 047/2003 for the release of GM white clover into the Australian environment.

\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \fi-1701\li1701\ri0\sb120\sa120\keepn\widctlpar\tx1701\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin1701\itap0 \b\scaps\fs27\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {\page 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 References
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang3081\langfe3081\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af17\cgrid\langnp3081\langfenp3081 {
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\sa240\widctlpar\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  ADDIN REFMGR.REFLIST }}{\fldrslt {\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Abberton, M.T., Marshall, A.H., Michaelson-Yeates, T.-P.T., Williams, T.A., Rhodes, I. (2002). Quality characteristics of backcross hybrids between }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and }{\i 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium ambiguum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Euphytica}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 127}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 75-80.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Anderson, J.A., Taylor, N.L., Williams, E.G. (1991). Cytology and fertility of the interspecific hybrid }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium ambiguum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  x }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
T. repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  and backcross populations. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Crop Science}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 31}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 683-687.
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\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 L. cv. Huia) in temperate pastures on the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Australian Journal of Agricultural Research}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 40}{
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Ayres, J.F., Davies, H.L., Farquharson, R.J., Mu\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 rison, R.D. (2000). The contribution of pasture research for animal production from legume-based pastures in temperate Australia. }{\i 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Bazzaz, F.A. (1986). Life history of colonizing plants: some demographic, genetic and physiological features. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 In}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Be\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 ekman, M., Ratnieks, F.L.W. (2000). Long-range foraging by the honey-bee,}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  Apis mellifera}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  L. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Functional Ecology}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 14}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 490-496.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Berg, G. (1993). Invertebrate pests of White clover. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 In}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  "White clover". Dairy Research and Development Corporation, Melbourne. pp 91\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 -94.

\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Campbell, M.H. (1966). Theft by harvesting ants of pasture seed broadcast on unploughed land. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Australian Journal of Experimental Agricultural and Animal Husbandry}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }
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Trifolium uniflorum}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 . }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Crop Science}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 11}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 667-672.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Chen, C.C., Gibson, P.B. (1972). Barriers to hybridization of }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Trifolium repens}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  with related species. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 14}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 381-389.
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\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Clarke, R. Diseases of white clover - 3: Leaf spot diseases. (1999c)
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Clifford, P.T.P., Baird, I.J., Grbavac, N., Sparks, G.A. (1990). White clover soil seed load\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 s: effect on requirements and resultant success of cultivar-change crops. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 52}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 95-98.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Clifford, P. T. P., Sparks, G. A., and Woodfield, D. R. (1996). The intensifying requirements for white clover cultiva\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 r change. In "}{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 
White clover: New Zealand's competitive edge. Joint symposium"}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 , Agronomy Society of New Zealand, Christchurch. pp. 19-24.
\par \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Coghlan, A. (2000). So far so good: for the moment, the gene genie is staying in its bottle. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 New Scientist}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 2231}{
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 4.
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., are synthesized by a single set of microsomal enzymes controlled by the }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Ac/ac}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  locus. }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Plant Science Letters}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b 
\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 34}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 119-125.
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The Australian Veterinary Journal}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 35}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 515-523.
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\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  L.). }{\i \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 Sexual Plant Reproduction}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0  }{\b \hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 13}{\hich\af0\dbch\af17\loch\f0 : 37-42.
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